text: https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/eu-wide-coordinated-risk-assessment-5g-networks-security 2 https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=58154 3 https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/cybersecurity-5g-networks-eu-toolbox-risk-mitigating-measures

text: https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-report-for-5g-networks 5 https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/5g-supplement-security-measures-under-eecc 6 https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/security-aspects-of-virtualization

text: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andreas_Kunz2/publication/319527681_Overview_of_5G_security_in_3GPP/links/59 b116d80f7e9b37434a8248/Overview-of-5G-security-in-3GPP.pdf https://www.gsma.com/security/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/T-ISAC_5G-Security_PenttinenJ-GSMA-public.pdf

text: https://docbox.etsi.org/isg/nfv/open/Publications_pdf/Specs-Reports/NFV-IFA%20040v4.2.1%20-%20GS%20- %20OS%20Container%20MANO%20service%20interfaces.pdf 10 https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gr/NFV-IFA/001_099/029/03.03.01_60/gr_NFV-IFA029v030301p.pdf 11 https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/NFV-IFA/001_099/010/04.01.01_60/gs_NFV-IFA010v040101p.pdf 12 https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/NFV-IFA/001_099/011/04.02.01_60/gs_NFV-IFA011v040201p.pdf

text: • 13 between VM-based and In several solutions, NFVO and VNFM are integrated into MANO. Open Source MANO (OSM) , Open 14 15 16 17 cloud native NFV MANO Networking Automation Platform (ONAP) , OpenBaton , Cloudify , SONATA , and Katana Slice Manager are considered as the leading integrated solutions for MANO. Note that OSM can also perform management and orchestration tasks on PNFs. • VNF Manager (VNFM): is responsible for managing the lifecycle of VNFs. VNFM operations include:

text: Open Source MANO (OSM), “OSM Open Source NFV Management and Orchestration (MANO) software stack aligned with ETSI NFV,” April 2021, https://osm.etsi.org ONAP, “ONAP Open Networking Automation Platform,” April 2021, https://www.onap.org/ OpenBaton, “OpenBaton An extensible and customizable NFV MANO-compliant framework,” April 2021, http://openbaton.org Cloudify, “Cloudify Multi Cloud Orchestration,” April 2021, https://cloudify.co/ SONATA, “Sonata agile development. testing and orchestration of services in 5g virtualized networks,” April 2021, https://www.sonata-nfv.eu Katana Wiki Home, “MediaNetworks Laboratory,” April 2021, https://github.com/medianetlab/katana-slice_manager/wiki

text: OpenStack, “OpenStack The Most Widely Deployed Open Source Cloud Software in the World,” April 2021, https://www.openstack.org/ OpenVIM, “Telefónica NFV reference lab,” April 2021, https://github.com/nfvlabs/openvim Kubernetes, “Kubernetes Production-Grade Container Orchestration,” April 2021, https://kubernetes.io

text: https://ryu-sdn.org https://www.opendaylight.org

text: Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) has qualities of both a hosted and a bare-metal virtualisation hypervisor. It can turn the Linux kernel itself into a hypervisor so the VMs have direct access to the physical hardware. 26 Snapshots: A snapshot is a state of a VM, and generally its storage devices, at an exact point in time. A snapshot enables the VM's state at the time of the snapshot to be restored later, effectively undoing any changes that occurred afterwards. This capability is useful as a backup technique, for example, prior to performing a risky operation. Migration: The snapshots can be moved to another host machine with its own hypervisor; when the VM is temporarily stopped, snapshotted, moved, and then resumed on the new host, this is known as migration. If the older snapshots are kept in synchronisation regularly, this operation can be quite fast, and allow the VM to provide uninterrupted service while its prior physical host is, for example, taken down for physical maintenance. 28 Failover: Similar to the migration mechanism, failover allows the VM to continue operations if the host fails. Generally, it occurs if the migration has stopped working. However, in this case, the VM continues operation from the last-known coherent state, rather than the current state, based on whatever materials the backup server was last provided with.

text: https://www.docker.com/resources/what-container 30 https://openvz.org/

text: A. Madhavapeddy et al., ‘Unikernels: Library Operating Systems for the Cloud’, ACM SIGPLAN Notices, vol. 48, no. 4. 2013, pp. 461–72. 33 http://unikernel.org/projects/

text: R. Morabito, V. Cozzolino, A. Y. Ding, N. Beijar and J. Ott, "Consolidate IoT EDGE Computing with Lightweight Virtualization," in IEEE Network, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 102-111, Jan.-Feb. 2018. 35 http://unicore-project.eu 36 http://www.5gmedia.eu 37 https://www.5gcity.eu 38 http://superfluidity.eu 39 https://5gcomplete.eu

text: • 43 44 new, or changes to existing, MANO descriptor files (e.g. network service templates, VNF forwarding graph descriptor, VNF descriptor) could be made without applying the correct security and affinity/anti-affinity policy rules between VMs or containers leading to local legal and regulatory issues, increased risks of fraud and SDN and NFV elements exposed to additional Orchestration security vulnerabilities;

text: https://docbox.etsi.org/isg/nfv/open/Publications_pdf/Specs-Reports/NFV-IFA%20014v3.3.1%20-%20GS%20- %20Network%20Service%20Templates%20Spec.pdf https://datatracker.ietf.org/meeting/88/materials/slides-88-opsawg-6.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv-ifa/001_099/011/02.03.01_60/gs_nfv-ifa011v020301p.pdf

text: https://blogs.oracle.com/oracle-communications/post/without-modern-ossbss-5g-network-investments-may-be-throwinggood-money-after-bad https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sb-OSS-BSS.pdf https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sb-OSS-BSS.pdf https://www.perforce.com/blog/vcs/how-secure-git Hackers target GitHub (and other popular Git hosting tools) for many reasons. But the biggest is the potential they see in hacking into repositories on GitHub and stealing (and potentially selling) intellectual property. Hardworking developers from companies all over the world use GitHub for personal and business needs, often on an ad hoc basis. And developers in the heat of battle can often overlook security concerns. Hackers know this — and exploit it.

text: Several network and service providers may be able to operate on the same physical infrastructure. For example, one company will provide enhanced mobile broadband, cellular phones for example, another one will provide massive machine type communications and a third one will provide low latency communications. Each service provider will use a customised virtualisation layer of the same physical infrastructure, with different technical specifications. Relevant telecommunication monitoring information may therefore not be available in every network slice. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-report-for-5g-networks

text: https://csrc.nist.gov/projects/cryptographic-standards-and-guidelines https://www.ssi.gouv.fr/entreprise/reglementation/confiance-numerique/liste-des-documents-constitutifs-du-rgs-v-2-0/ https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/BSI/Publications/TechGuidelines/TG02102/BSI-TR-02102-1.html https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gr/NFV-SEC/001_099/018/01.01.01_60/gr_NFV-SEC018v010101p.pdf

text: https://www.digitaleurope.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/DIGITALEUROPE-Position-on-Encryption-Policy-.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gr/NFV-SEC/001_099/018/01.01.01_60/gr_NFV-SEC018v010101p.pdf

text: https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/NFV-SOL/001_099/013/03.05.01_60/gs_NFV-SOL013v030501p.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/NFV-SEC/001_099/022/02.08.01_60/gs_NFV-SEC022v020801p.pdf https://serverfault.com/questions/622094/what-is-an-acceptable-secure-time-source-in-a-datacentre-environment

text: 66 67 68 69 LI capabilities should be consistent with 3GPP and ETSI specifications on Lawful BP-T33 LI capabilities Interception. They cover all necessary aspects in a 5G context: requirements, architecture and functions, protocol, and procedures.

text: https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/133100_133199/133127/15.00.00_60/ts_133127v150000p.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/133100_133199/133126/15.00.00_60/ts_133126v150000p.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/133100_133199/133128/15.00.00_60/ts_133128v150000p.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/133100_133199/133108/12.08.00_60/ts_133108v120800p.pdf https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=2266 https://www.ericsson.com/4a49ce/assets/local/reports-papers/further-insights/doc/02092021-12911-securityconsiderations-for-cloud-ran-6-edits.pdf https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-207/final https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv-sec/001_099/003/01.01.01_60/gs_nfv-sec003v010101p.pdf https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/zero-trust-architecture/introduction-to-zero-trust https://www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/ericsson-technology-review/articles/zero-trust-and-5g https://www.ericsson.com/4a49ce/assets/local/reports-papers/further-insights/doc/02092021-12911-securityconsiderations-for-cloud-ran-6-edits.pdf

text: 78 jointly defined by 3GPP and GSMA, and the ENISA EUCC , EUCS schemes.

text: https://www.ericsson.com/4a49ce/assets/local/reports-papers/further-insights/doc/02092021-12911-security-considerations-for-cloud-ran-6-edits.pdf https://csrc.nist.gov/Projects/ssdf https://csrc.nist.gov/Projects/devsecops https://spdx.github.io/spdx-spec/ https://cyclonedx.org https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/guideline-on-security-measures-under-the-eecc https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/5g-supplement-security-measures-under-eecc

text: https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/security-aspects-of-virtualization 87 https://ec.europa.eu/information_society/newsroom/image/document/2018-30/reference_document_security_measures_0040C183-FF20- ECC4-A3D11FA2A80DAAC6_53643.pdf 88 https://www.enisa.europa.eu/topics/nis-directive/minimum-security-measures-for-operators-of-essentials-services 89 https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Security_Guidance_For_5G_Cloud_Infrastructures_Part_I_508_Compliant.pdf 90 https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Security_Guidance_For_5G_Cloud_Infrastructures_Part_II_Updated_508_Compliant.pdf 91 https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Security_Guidance_For_5G_Cloud_Infrastructures_Part_III_508_Compliant.pdf 92 https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Security_Guidance_For_5G_Cloud_Infrastructures_Part_IV_508_Compliant.pdf

text: https://i.blackhat.com/USA-19/Wednesday/us-19-Shaik-New-Vulnerabilities-In-5G-Networks-wp.pdf http://dualec.org/DualECTLS.pdf https://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/category/rngs/

text: https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3169 https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/security-in-5g-specifications/ https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gr/NFV-SEC/001_099/005/01.02.01_60/gr_NFV-SEC005v010201p.pdf

text: 102 103 104 NIST SP 800-190 and ANSSI , Container security , Redhat and others provide detailed best practices for the security of containers.

text: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-190.pdf https://www.ssi.gouv.fr/guide/recommandations-de-securite-relatives-au-deploiement-de-conteneurs-docker/ https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/1665891/Assets/Container%20Security%20by%20Liz%20Rice%20-%20OReilly%20Apr%202020.pdf https://www.redhat.com/cms/managed-files/cl-container-security-openshift-cloud-devops-tech-detail-f7530kc-201705-en.pdf https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sb-OSS-BSS.pdf https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sb-OSS-BSS.pdf https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sb-OSS-BSS.pdf https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/sb-OSS-BSS.pdf

text: https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/101300_101399/101331/01.07.01_60/ts_101331v010701p.pdf https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/102600_102699/102656/01.03.01_60/ts_102656v010301p.pdf https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3181

text: https://telco.vmware.com/content/dam/digitalmarketing/vmware/en/pdf/microsites/telco/vmware-telco-security-whitepapers.pdf https://www.redhat.com/en/partners/devsecops https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-report-for-5g-networks https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/security-aspects-of-virtualization https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-190.pdf https://csrc.nist.gov/glossary/term/Virtualization https://www.cisecurity.org/cis-benchmarks/ https://www.ericsson.com/en/blog/2021/1/open-source-security-software

text: https://osm.etsi.org/docs/user-guide/02-osm-architecture-and-functions.html 121 https://www.etsi.org/technologies/open-source-mano 122 Open Network Automation Platform, https://docs.onap.org/en/elalto/index.html#

text: https://wiki.onap.org/display/DW/Edge+Automation+through+ONAP+Arch.+Task+Force+- +Distributed+Management+%28ONAP+etc.%29+components 124 http://sonatanfv.org/content/objectives 125 OpenStack Tacker,” https://wiki.openstack.org/wiki/Tacker

text: ® It profiles the reference Kubernetes API as an NFV protocol and data model solution for OS TM container management and orchestration. It profiles the reference Helm documentation as an NFV protocol and data model solution for the management of OS container workloads based on TM an MCIOP (managed container infrastructure object package). It profiles the reference OCI TM Distribution Specification API (which is based on the Docker registry API) as an NFV protocol

text: “OpenBaton” https://openbaton.github.io/ 127 https://kubernetes.io 128 https://portal.etsi.org/webapp/WorkProgram/Report_WorkItem.asp?WKI_ID=62022&curItemNr=77&totalNrItems=80&optDis play=100000&titleType=all&qSORT=HIGHVERSION&qETSI_ALL=&SearchPage=TRUE&qTB_ID=789%3BNFV&qINCLUD E_SUB_TB=True&qINCLUDE_MOVED_ON=&qSTART_CURRENT_STATUS_CODE=0%3BM40&qEND_CURRENT_STA TUS_CODE=9+AB%3BN24&qSTOP_FLG=N&qKEYWORD_BOOLEAN=OR&qCLUSTER_BOOLEAN=OR&qFREQUENCI ES_BOOLEAN=OR&qSTOPPING_OUTDATED=&butExpertSearch=Search&includeNonActiveTB=FALSE&includeSubProj ectCode=FALSE&qREPORT_TYPE=SUMMARY

text: ® TM TM The latest published versions of the Kubernetes API, Helm documentation and OCI distribution specification API are profiled against the requirements of the functions and the management service interfaces of the container infrastructure service management (CISM) and container image registry (CIR) functions as specified in ETSI GS NFV-IFA 040 and ETSI GS NFV-IFA 010.

text: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275037585/download 131 https://www.linuxfoundation.jp/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/LF_StandardsOpenSource_Whitepaper_012418.pdf

identifier: NFV Security in 5G - Challenges and Best Practices

title: NFV Security in 5G - Challenges and Best Practices

text: Challenges and Best Practices FEBRUARY 2022 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: ABOUT ENISA

text: The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, ENISA, is the Union’s agency dedicated to achieving a high common level of cybersecurity across Europe. Established in 2004 and strengthened by the EU Cybersecurity Act, the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity contributes to EU cyber policy, enhances the trustworthiness of ICT products, services and processes with cybersecurity certification schemes, cooperates with Member States and EU bodies, and helps Europe prepare for the cyber challenges of tomorrow. Through knowledge sharing, capacity building and awareness raising, the Agency works together with its key stakeholders to strengthen trust in the connected economy, to boost resilience of the Union’s infrastructure and, ultimately, to keep Europe’s society and citizens digitally secure. More information about ENISA and its work can be found here: www.enisa.europa.eu. CONTACT For contacting the authors please use resilience@enisa.europa.eu. For media enquiries about this paper, please use press@enisa.europa.eu. EDITORS Evgenia Nikolouzou, Goran Milenkovic, Georgia Bafoutsou and Slawomir Bryska (ENISA) CONTRIBUTORS Mohamad Hajj, Claire Loiseaux ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful for the review and valuable input received from: the experts in the ECASEC Expert Group (formerly known as Article 13a Expert Group), which comprises national telecom regulatory authorities (NRAs) from all EU and EFTA countries, from the experts from national authorities in the NIS Cooperation group, and particularly those experts contributing to the NIS CG work stream on 5G cybersecurity, from the ETSI ISG NFV Security WG that is developing specifications and reports for the virtualization of network functions, with focus on the management and orchestration of virtualized resources. LEGAL NOTICE This publication represents the views and interpretations of ENISA, unless stated otherwise. It does not endorse a regulatory obligation of ENISA or of ENISA bodies pursuant to the

text: Regulation (EU) No 2019/881

text: . ENISA has the right to alter, update or remove the publication or any of its contents. It is intended for information purposes only and it must be accessible free of charge. All references to it or its use as a whole or partially must contain ENISA as its source. Third-party sources are quoted as appropriate. ENISA is not responsible or liable for the content of the external sources including external websites referenced in this publication. Neither ENISA nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use that might be made of the information contained in this publication. 1 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 ENISA maintains its intellectual property rights in relation to this publication. COPYRIGHT NOTICE © European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA), 2022 This publication is licenced under CC-BY 4.0 “Unless otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that reuse is allowed, provided that appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated”. ISBN 978-92-9204-557-9, DOI 10.2824/166009, Catalogue Number TP-06-22-045-EN-N 2 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: TABLE OF CONTENTS

text: 1. INTRODUCTION 7 1.1 OBJECTIVES 7 1.2 SCOPE 8 1.3 TARGET AUDIENCE 9 1.4 METHODOLOGY 10 1.5 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT 10 2. 5G NFV SECURITY FRAMEWORK 12 2.1 5G END-TO-END ARCHITECTURE 12 2.2 NFV ARCHITECTURE 16 2.3 NFV WITH SDN ROLES 20 2.4 5G NFV STAKEHOLDERS 22 2.5 NFV SECURITY OPPORTUNITIES 24 2.6 NFV KEY TECHNOLOGIES 25 2.7 NFV DEPLOYMENT MODELS 31 3. 5G NFV: ASSETS, CHALLENGES, VULNERABILITES AND ATTACK SCENARIOS 36 3.1 ASSETS 36 3.2 SECURITY CHALLENGES 37 3.3 NFV VULNERABILITIES 52 3.4 NFV ATTACKS SCENARIOS 53 4. 5G NFV SECURITY BEST PRACTICES 55 4.1 CATEGORISATION OF SECURITY MEASURES 55 4.2 SECURITY REQUIREMENTS AND MEASURES OF THE EECC 62 4.3 OTHER RELEVANT SECURITY HARDENING GUIDANCE 63 3 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 4.4 RATIONALE BETWEEN CHALLENGES CATEGORIES-VULNERABILITIES CATEGORIES–ATTACKS-AFFECTED ASSETS AND BEST PRACTICES 64 5. OPEN AND FUTURE SECURITY CHALLENGES 68 6. CONCLUSION 70 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 72 REFERENCES 77 A ANNEX: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 84 B ANNEX: ASSETS MAPS 86 C ANNEX: VULNERABILITY TAXONOMY 91 D ANNEX: ATTACK TAXONOMY 98 E ANNEX: BEST PRACTICES REGISTER 105 F ANNEX: MAPPING OF CHALLENGES, VULNERABILITIES, ATTACK SCENARIOS, AFFECTED ASSETS AND BEST PRACTICES 125 G ANNEX: REFERENCES FOR CHALLENGES 148 H ANNEX: NFV MANO PLATFORMS 152 I ANNEX: NFV STANDARDISATION, OPEN-SOURCE AND ACADEMIA/INDUSTRY INITIATIVES 156 4 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

text: The advent of 5G wireless communications constitutes a new era of network connection that will not only expand technical capabilities but will also revolutionise many aspects of commerce and personal lives by driving an exponential increase in the number of connected devices in various sectors of the economy. 5G is an altogether different network technology that will introduce a virtualised, cloud-based architecture, enabling highly specialised functions and security for different network applications. This 5G revolution will also expand the attack surface for cyberthreats thus necessitating the introduction of the principles of security-by-design from the early stages of the design and deployment of 5G networks. Towards this technological revolution, the European Commission and the Member States, with the support of ENISA, developed a single EU Coordinated Risk Assessment on Cybersecurity in 5G Networks, following on the European Commission’s Recommendation on the cybersecurity of 5G networks. Subsequently, the NIS Cooperation Group published the EU toolbox of risk mitigating measures. The objectives of this toolbox are to identify a possible common set of measures that are capable of mitigating the main cybersecurity risks of 5G networks that were identified in the EU report on coordinated risk assessment, and to provide guidance for the selection of measures that should be prioritised in mitigation plans at national and at Union level. One of the technical measures, TM04, calls on relevant authorities in EU Member States to ensure that Mobile Network Operators follow security best practices for network function virtualisation (NFV). Network Function Virtualisation (NFV) has made a huge impact in a very short time since the use of virtualisation technologies brings various benefits such as agility, flexibility and cost efficiency. At the same time, the introduction of NFV in 5G networks also introduces new challenges and risks. NFV changes the network security environment due to resource pools based on cloud computing and open network architecture. Thanks to the agility and the Orchestration and Management (O&M) efficiency of NFV networks, attacked networks can potentially be abandoned and resources recycled, enabling disasters to be quickly isolated, a response that’s impossible in traditional networks. Network functions, network links, and even entire networks can be rapidly redeployed, enabling fast recovery from disasters. At the same time, though, security challenges have become more diverse. In this report the relevant challenges, vulnerabilities and attacks pertaining to NFV within the 5G network are explored and security controls and best practices are put forward to address these challenges, taking into account the particularities of this highly complex, heterogeneous and volatile environment. Accordingly, this ENISA study provides the following main information: • The 5G NFV security framework, • Potential 5G NFV deployment models, • Main stakeholders involved in the 5G NFV ecosystem with their roles and responsibilities, • Challenges, vulnerabilities, assets and attack taxonomies for 5G NFV, • Best practices to improve the cybersecurity posture of 5G NFV, 5 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 • Full mapping of challenges, vulnerabilities, assets, attack scenarios and best practices, • NFV Standardisation, Open-Source and initiatives from academia and industry. Specifically, in this report sixty security challenges grouped into 7 categories have been identified and explored. These drive the report to the next steps: vulnerabilities, attack scenarios, their impact on the 5G NFV assets and 55 best practices classified under Technical, Policy and Organisational categories. The main challenges explored in this report have shown that: • Resource virtualisation: the virtualisation layer provides unified computing resources based on generalised hardware to the layers above and is the basis of all cloud-native and virtualised network functions and service software. If the virtualisation layer is breached, all network functions come under direct attack with disastrous consequences. • Resource sharing: a single physical server may run several different tenants' virtual resources (e.g. virtual machines (VMs ) or containers), and a single tenant's virtual resource might be distributed across several physical servers. Multi-tenancy resource sharing and the breaking of physical boundaries introduce the risks of data leaks, data residue and attacks. • Use of open source: there will be increasing use of open-source software. This introduces a new set of security challenges in terms of keeping a consistent and coherent approach to security-by-design and the prevention of deliberate security flaws. • Multi-vendor environment: in such an environment is it difficult to coordinate security policies and determine responsibility for security problems and requires more effective network security monitoring capabilities. • Supply chain: introduces risks such as malicious software and hardware, counterfeit components, poor designs, manufacturing processes and maintenance procedures. This may result in negative consequences, such as data and intellectual property theft, loss of confidence in the integrity of the 5G network, or exploitation to cause system and network failure. • Lawful Interception (LI) functionality: placing LI functions within the virtualised environment exposes them to a variety of security and visibility risks. 6 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 1. INTRODUCTION

text: Fifth Generation (5G) networks aim at providing value-added services with advanced performance such as low-latency communications, high reliability, high data rates and capacity to support an increasing number of connected devices. 5G aims to provide a flexible platform to integrate vertical industries and a wide range of services and applications such as autonomous driving, robotics, augmented and virtual reality, remote healthcare, and more. For such services and use cases, security technology and architecture must be natively integrated into the overall hybrid and virtual architecture to appropriate internal and external security services. Previous iterations, such as GSM/CMDA (2G) and HSPA/eVDO (3G,) were designed to connect people to people predominantly through voice and text, while LTE/LTE-A (4G) was designed to connect people to the Internet. 5G expands upon this evolution through ubiquitous connectivity of things to people, services, the Internet and things. To meet the requirements for scale, throughput, latency, and reliability, 5G architecture has adopted Network Function Virtualisation (NFV) and software-Defined Networking (SDN) to streamline network and service deployment, operations and management. Operators, service providers and other verticals (e.g. Connected Cars, IOT, eHealth, Industry 4.0) can leverage SDN/NFV to provide flexible and cost-effective service without compromising the end user’s quality of service (QoS). NFV and SDN open the door to flexible networks and rapid creation of services. This both offers opportunities for security and introduces additional security challenges and complexities in some cases. With the rapid proliferation of 5G networks, operators have started the deployment of NFV. While several standardisation bodies (e.g. ETSI, 3GPP, NGMN and GSMA) have started looking into the many security issues introduced by NFV, additional work is needed with greater involvement of the security community including vendors, operators, universities and regulators. This report will focus on various security challenges and opportunities introduced by NFV in 5G. We will present current security challenges, vulnerabilities and attacks pertaining to NFV within the 5G network and put forward security controls and best practices to address these challenges taking into account the particularities of this highly complex, heterogeneous and volatile environment. 1.1 OBJECTIVES This ENISA study aims at underlining and analysing the security challenges related to 5G NFV. The main objectives are to identify challenges and best practices to ensure the security of 5G NFV, while mapping the relevant security challenges, vulnerabilities, attacks scenarios, assets and best practices. Note: ‘5G NFV’ in this report means the ‘NFV as applicable to 5G’. This study indicates how challenges and vulnerabilities can be exploited through cyberthreats and how this exploitation can be mitigated through security controls and best practices. The following objectives have been set: 7 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 • identify 5G NFV sensitive assets, • identify potential and main cyber challenges, vulnerabilities and attack scenarios targeting 5G NFV, • map identified challenges, vulnerabilities and attack scenarios to assets, • identify relevant security measures and best practices, and map them to the security challenges. Identified challenges, vulnerabilities, attack scenarios and best practices are consolidated from various publicly available resources including: • main 5G standardisation documents and telecommunication best practices (3GPP, ETSI, NIST, FFT, FCC and GSMA), • EU-funded research projects (5GPPP), • industrial white papers, • research articles, • guidance and recommendations for organisations such as CIS and CSA, • interviews and contributions from 5G security experts and Member States 1.2 SCOPE Towards this technological revolution, the European Commission and the Member States (MS), with the support of ENISA, developed a single EU Coordinated Risk Assessment on Cybersecurity in 5G Networks , following on the European Commission’s Recommendation on the cybersecurity of 5G networks (published on 26 March, 2019). This coordinated risk assessment is based on individual national risk assessments and identifies the main threats and threat actors, the most sensitive assets, the main vulnerabilities and the main risks. To complement this report and as a further input for the toolbox, ENISA carried out a dedicated threat landscape mapping, consisting of a detailed analysis of certain technical aspects, in particular the identification of network assets and of threats affecting these. Subsequently, on 29 January 2020, the NIS Cooperation Group published the EU toolbox of risk mitigating measures . The objectives of this toolbox are to identify a possible common set of measures that are capable of mitigating the main cybersecurity risks of 5G networks as have been identified in the EU coordinated risk assessment report, and to provide guidance for the selection of measures, which should be prioritised in mitigation plans at national and at Union level. The toolbox identifies two groups of measures MS can take: strategic and technical measures. In addition, it identifies a number of supporting actions that can assist, enable or support the implementation of strategic and technical measures. One of the technical measures, TM04, calls on relevant authorities in EU Member States to ensure that mobile network operators follow best practices in security for network function virtualisation (NFV). To support implementation of this technical measure, the Toolbox also defines the supporting action SA01, calling for reviews or the development of guidelines and best practices on network security, and identifying ENISA and the relevant authorities in MSs as relevant actors for these regards. NFV Security in 5G is one of the key issues that needs to be 8 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 addressed comprehensively in order to take advantage of the business opportunities arising from 5G Networks. This ENISA study outlines best practices for the security of 5G NFV. It is building on several 45 6 previous ENISA studies on 5G and virtualisation and mainly focuses on 5G NFV. The purpose of the report is to explain the security challenges associated with NFV in 5G and make practical best practices and recommendations for addressing those challenges when planning for, implementing and maintaining NFV. Within NFV, a Network Function is implemented in a virtualised form of NF or cloud Native NF. In this report the term ‘VNF’ Virtual Network Function is used to designate both virtualised NF and cloud Native NF. The VNF is defined in this report as a software implementation of a Network Function, capable of running on the Cloud Infrastructure. VNFs are built from one or more VNF components (VNFC) and, in most cases, the VNFC is hosted on a single VM or container. Virtualised NF and Cloud Native NF are similar in that they both virtualise network functions to build an agile 5G NFV infrastructure. Both use an underlying physical server to readily expand and adapt whenever and wherever the user needs to deploy network capabilities. The difference mainly lies in how those network functions are abstracted from the underlying physical server infrastructure. • Virtualised NF uses a hypervisor to provide a single layer of abstraction that enables networking and network security functions to run as dedicated appliances (e.g. routers, firewalls, etc.) in the form of virtual machines (VMs), which can quickly be deployed on generic hardware. • Cloud native NF reduces each discrete network and network security function into a microservice, packaged in its own container, and deployed on generic hardware resources on a cloud platform. Consequently, some aspects of NFV may vary among technologies (e.g. VM, container), but the most security challenges and best practices in this report are intended to apply to most or all NFV technologies, unless otherwise specified. 1.3 TARGET AUDIENCE The main purpose of this report is to provide knowledge and information on 5G NFV challenges and best practices to the relevant community. This information may be useful to a variety of target groups. • Non-technical stakeholders such as policy-makers, regulators and law enforcement: this target group may find this report useful for understanding the emerging challenges, vulnerabilities, threats and respective practices and measures for mitigation. • Experts working in the telecommunication sector, such as operators, vendors, and service providers: this target group may find this report useful for carrying out detailed threat analyses and risk assessments in accordance with their particular needs and mandate (e.g. to protect a specific number of components based on asset impact analysis, respond to specific vulnerabilities with customised mitigation measures among others). 9 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 • Businesses, consultants and product developers: this target group can draw valuable conclusions from the developed analysis and material for their offerings (products, services). This can take the form of demonstrating how vulnerabilities have been eliminated by using developed defences, use of the material within customer projects, or use of the material as a benchmark for defining cybersecurity protection policies for such infrastructures (e.g. for the development of verticals). Moreover, the developed material can be used in developing security audits for 5G NFV infrastructures. • Experts in research and innovation: the material presented provides a detailed view of security issues for 5G NFV. This target group may use this material as a basis for gap analysis, as material to evaluate the impact of research and as a source for innovative actions with regard to its further development and implementation. Finally, this target group may use this material as a useful resource for numerous academic activities, such as teaching, research, support of scholars, etc. 1.4 METHODOLOGY ENISA has developed this study by following a four-step methodological approach. Figure 1: Methodology (1) Project scope definition: the first step consisted in establishing the scope of the project and identifying the main topics to be considered during the study. (2) Desktop research and identification of expert groups: extensive research of relevant documents to gather as much information as possible about 5G NFV security challenges and best practices. The identified documents and standards were used as references for the development of this report. During this step, subject matter experts were also invited to validate scope and provide feedback. (3) Analysis of collected material and report development: all the information collected, whether through desktop research or directly from the experts identified, was thoroughly analysed. (4) Review and report validation: ENISA shared the draft of the report with its relevant stakeholder communities and reference groups for review. Taking the feedback from the stakeholders into account, the proposed final version of the report was issued. 1.5 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT The study is structured as follows. 1. Chapter 1 - Introduction: provides introductory information on the objectives, scope, target audience, methodology followed and the structure of this study. 2. Chapter 2 - 5G NFV security framework: describes the architecture of 5G from the core to the far edge with a focus on the roles of NFV and SDN. It explores the main opportunities in NFV when it comes to security and illustrates some deployment models with varying risks that may be considered in a virtualised environment. 3. Chapter 3 – 5G NFV: Assets, challenges, vulnerabilities and attack scenarios: lists sensitive assets that need to be protected. It identifies the main security 10 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 challenges to be resolved. Moreover, it illustrates the list of potential vulnerabilities related to NFV challenges and sorts the main attacks into categories and their impacts. 4. Chapter 4 – 5G NFV security best practices: presents a brief description of the security measures and best practices to mitigate and solve the challenges identified. It describes the high-level interrelations at the category level between the categories of challenges, categories of vulnerabilities, attacks, affected assets and best practices. 5. Chapter 5 - Open and future security challenges: provides some of the research challenges and future directions for NFV security. The full details, taxonomies and coverage mappings are provided in the annexes as follows. A. Annex A – Roles and Responsibilities: presents the various administrative roles and responsibilities belonging to 5G stakeholders. B. Annex B – Assets Maps: provides mind maps of the assets already described in Chapter 3. C. Annex C - Vulnerability Taxonomy: presents a description of the various NFV vulnerabilities illustrated in Chapter 3 that can be exploited to perform attacks impacting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of NFV systems. D. Annex D - Attack Taxonomy: provides for each attack listed in Chapter 3. E. Annex E - Best practices register: provides a full description of best practices from Chapter 4 with references. F. Annex F - Mapping of challenges, vulnerabilities, attacks scenarios, affected assets and best practices: illustrates the detailed mapping of security challenges to vulnerabilities, attacks scenarios, affected assets and best practices. G. Annex G - Challenges references: lists the documents used as references for the development of security challenges in Chapter 3. H. Annex H – NFV MANO Platforms: details the main MANO (management and orchestration) platforms for both VMs and/or containers. I. Annex I – NFV standardisation, open source and academic or industrial initiatives: provides the main NFV standardisation, open-source and initiatives by academia and industry. 11 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 2. 5G NFV SECURITY FRAMEWORK

text: 2.1 5G END-TO-END ARCHITECTURE Figure 2 presents an NFV/SDN-enabled 5G architecture. It illustrates the various components from the core to the far edge. As defined by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), the 5G network is a Service-Based Architecture (SBA) which is a set of interconnected network functions (NFs) that deliver the control plane functionality and common data repositories of a 5G network [1], [2], [3], [4]. Supporting an SBA brings new requirements for the control, coordination and orchestration of disaggregated network functions that are distributed across the network. These network functions are virtualised or containerised microservices that can support the 5G core, the Radio Access Network (RAN), and the MEC (Multi-access Edge Computing). Cloud RAN (CRAN), Virtualised RAN (VRAN) and Open RAN (ORAN) are all concepts that have emerged in the last few years to run baseband functions on commodity server hardware, based on the principles of Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV). The MEC takes advantage of the existing NFV infrastructure to provide services characterised by low latency, proximity, location awareness, high bandwidth and real-time insight into radio network information. In order to support CRAN/ORAN/VRAN and MEC, operators will deploy small datacentres at the edge. These infrastructures will make it possible to deploy applications and VNFs at the edge without investing additional resources. The MEC (edge) platform at each datacentre will allow third party applications to activate traffic offloading at the edge while also enabling access to other information provided by the operator. The core network is the central part of the 5G infrastructure. It enables all functions related to multi-access technologies. Its main purpose is to deliver services over all kinds of networks (wireless, fixed, converged). The target of SDN is to use programmable software-driven devices to control the behaviour of the infrastructure. With SDN, user services can be delivered faster, and the efficiency of network resources increases. SDN is based on three principles: 1. decoupling of control from traffic forwarding and processing, 2. logically centralised control, 3. programmability of network services. A fully virtualised 5G network could bring significant benefits of harmonisation: one single uniform hardware platform across the core network, RAN and edge. This could simplify the management of the complete network, reducing operations and maintenance costs. The following two sections give more details on the co-dependent technologies of NFV and SDN. Where NFV is in charge of dynamically creating and managing the network functions and provisioning various network services, SDN provides the capabilities to manage and orchestrate the virtual networks among these services. While both SDN and NFV make networking architectures more flexible and dynamic, they perform different roles. 12 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 2.1.1 Service based architecture Compared to previous generations the 3GPP 5G system architecture is service based (SBA) (Figure 3) [2], [3], [4]. That means wherever suitable the architectural elements are defined as network functions that offer their services via interfaces of a common framework to any network functions that are permitted to make use of these provided services. The SBA specifies flat peer to peer relationships between Network Functions (NFs) via the HTTP/2-based Service Based Interface (SBI). Network Repository Functions (NRF) allow every network function to discover the services offered by other network functions. This architectural model, which further adopts principles like modularity, reusability and selfcontainment of network functions, is chosen to enable deployments to take advantage of the latest virtualisation and software technologies [5]. Instead of specifying network entities, a more modular design is achieved by specifying a set of NFs which allows stronger decoupling between logical and physical architecture, facilitating the virtualisation of the different NFs running on generic computer hardware. Furthermore, NFs can be physically implemented in different ways (e.g. all of them in a single physical node, distributed across multiple nodes or running on a cloud platform). 13 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 With the split of control plane and user plane, NFs responsible of the control plane are different from those responsible of the user plane allowing independent scalability and evolution (e.g. allocating more capacity to the control plane without affecting the user plane). Moreover, it allows flexible deployments, e.g. centralised location for control plane or distributed (remote) location for user plane. 2.1.2 5G Network Functions The 5G core is a mesh of interconnected services as shown in Figure 3. In addition, the 5G system architecture introduces several security-related 5G network functions [2], [3], [4], [6] as shown in Figure 4. Table 1 gives a brief explanation of each network function. Table 1: 5G network functions Network Function Description

text: User Plane

text: The User Plane Function deals with the user plane communication in the 5GC, acting as a gateway between User Plane Function the RAN and the external Data Network (DN) (e.g. Internet). The main functionalities are: packet routing and (UPF) forwarding, downlink packet buffering and downlink data notification triggering, QoS handling and traffic measurements.

text: Control Plane

text: The Access and Mobility Management Function is a control plane function in charge of handling the control

text: Access and Mobility

text: signalling between the UE and the 5GC. The main functionalities are: registration management, connection

text: Management Function

text: management to establish the control plane signalling with the UE, mobility management (e.g. idle mode UE

text: (AMF)

text: reachability), control and execution of paging and support of infra-system and inter-system mobility.

text: The Session Management Function is a control plane function in charge of the following main functionalities:

text: Session Management

text: session establishment, modification and release, UE IP address allocation and management, control of

text: Function (SMF)

text: policy enforcement and QoS and configuration of traffic steering at UPF to route traffic to proper destination.

text: Policy Control Function The Policy Control Function provides policy rules (e.g. authorised QoS for each service data flow) to the (PCF) network functions in charge of enforcing them (e.g. SMF).

text: The Application Function allows interacting with the applications making use of the network. This can be

text: Application Function

text: used for applications that require dynamic policy control, e.g. for dynamically modifying the bit rate to be

text: (AF)

text: provided. Based on interactions with these applications, policy requirements are provided to the PCF.

text: The function of Unified Data Management is to provide the handling of user identification, subscription

text: Unified Data

text: management, access authorisation based on subscription data (e.g. roaming restrictions), and generation of

text: Management (UDM)

text: authentication credentials. It uses subscription data that may be stored in the UDR (Unified Data Repository).

text: Network Exposure The Network Exposure Function is used to expose services of the 5G core towards other networks (e.g. third Function (NEF) party providers, verticals, etc.). This allows the fast creation of new services making use of the 5G core.

text: The Network Repository, with the profile of the available NF instances (id, PLMN ID, network slice identifiers, Network Repository capacity information, etc.) and their supported services, allows an NF to discover the services offered by the Function (NRF) other NFs of the core network. This provides a lot of flexibility for defining the interactions between NFs and allows that any NF can directly interact with another one.

text: Security-related Network Function

text: The AUSF provides the UE authentication service. AUSF shall handle authentication requests for both, Authentication Server 3GPP access and non-3GPP access. The AUSF shall provide SUPI to the VPLMN (core network or serving Function (AUSF) network) only after authentication confirmation if authentication request with SUCI was sent by VPLMN. The AUSF shall inform the UDM that a successful or unsuccessful authentication of a subscriber has occurred.

text: Authentication The ARPF is a functional element of the UDM (Unified Data Management), responsible for generating 5G HE Credential Repository AV (5G Home Environment Authentication Vectors) based on the subscriber’s shared secret key. It selects and Processing an authentication method based on subscriber identity and configured policy and computes the Function (ARPF) authentication data and keying materials.

text: 14 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Network Function Description

text: The 5G System architecture introduces Inter-PLMN UP Security (IPUPS) at the perimeter of the PLMN for

text: Inter-PLMN UP Security

text: protecting user plane messages. The IPUPS is a functionality of the UPF that enforces GTP-U security on

text: (IPUPS)

text: the N9 interface between UPFs of the visited and home PLMNs.

text: Security Context The SCMF retrieves the key from the SEAF, which is used to derive further keys.

text: Management Function (SCMF)

text: Subscription Identifier

text: The SIDF is a functional element of the UDM (Unified Data Management), responsible for decrypting a SUCI

text: De-concealing Function

text: (Subscription Concealed Identifier) to reveal the subscriber’s SUPI (Subscription Permanent Identifier).

text: (SIDF)

text: The SEAF forms, as an outcome of the primary authentication, the unified, common anchor key KSEAF for

text: Security Anchor

text: all the access scenarios. The unified anchor key KSEAF can be used by the UE and the serving network to Function (SEAF) 7 protect the subsequent communication .

text: Security Edge The 5G System architecture introduces a Security Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP) as an entity sitting at the Protection Proxy perimeter of the PLMN for protecting control plane messages. The SEPP enforces inter-PLMN security on (SEPP) the N32 interface. The SEPP shall act as a non-transparent proxy node.

text: Security Policy Control

text: The SPCF provides policies related to the security of network functions such as AMF, SMF and UE.

text: Function (SPCF)

text: The NSSF supports the selection of the Network Slice instance(s) serving a UE. It offers services to the AMF

text: Network Slice Selection

text: and NSSF in a different PLMN via the Nnssf service-based interface (see 3GPP TS 23.501 [3] and 3GPP TS

text: Function (NSSF)

text: 23.502 [4]).

text: Figure 4: Security-related 5G network functions 15 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 2.1.3 Support of network slicing A distinct key feature of the 5G system architecture is network slicing. Within the scope of the 3GPP 5G system architecture a network slice refers to the set of 3GPP defined features and functionalities that together form a complete Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) for providing services to UEs. Network slicing allows for controlled composition of a PLMN from the specified network functions with their specific, provided services that are required for a specific usage scenario. Each PLMNs is customised by instantiating only the features, capabilities and services required to satisfy the subset of the served users/UEs or related business customer needs [5]. With 5G, NFs can be individually instantiated for each network slice and placed where appropriate. In this way, multiple network slices can be created, each one composed of a collection of control plane and user plane NFs customised to the needs of the slice. For example, one network slice can include the NFs to support mobile broadband services with full mobility support, and another one to support non-mobile, latency-critical industry applications. 2.1.4 Support of multi-access edge computing (MEC) MEC uses the wireless access network to provide services and cloud computing functions required by telecom users, and to construct a carrier class service environment with high performance, low latency and high bandwidth to improve the communication experience of mobile users. Edge computing is an evolution of cloud computing that brings application hosting from centralised datacentres down to the network edge, close to the consumers and the data generated by applications. The main advantages are the computation offloading, distributed content delivery and caching, and low latency services. In order to profit from the advantages provided by edge computing in 5G, the technology needs to support connecting the 5G core to a local area data network (LADN) where the applications are implemented and the UPF must be able to perform the local routing of certain traffic to the LADN. In terms of physical deployment of MEC hosts, there are multiple options available based on various operational, performance or security related requirements. The following list gives an outline of some of the feasible options for the physical location of MEC: 1. MEC and the local UPF collocated with the base station, 2. MEC collocated with a transmission node, possibly with a local UPF, 3. MEC and the local UPF collocated with a network aggregation point, 4. MEC collocated with the core network functions (i.e. in the same datacentre). The options presented above show that MEC can be flexibly deployed in different locations from near the base station to the central data network. Common for all deployments is the UPF which is deployed and used to steer the traffic towards the targeted MEC applications and towards the network. 2.2 NFV ARCHITECTURE The virtualisation of network elements, NFV, is a concept that virtualises the main elements of a network. In this sense, instead of having a dedicated hardware element to provide a function of the network, software running on general hardware is used. In this way, entire classes of network node functions can be set up as building blocks that can be connected to create overall telecommunications networks. Examples of the virtualised functions that can be provided include virtualised load balancers, firewalls, intrusion detection devices, WAN accelerators, routers, access control and billing. 16 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 As a standard specification, ETSI focuses on high-level architecture, development guidelines, and interoperability enabled by open interfaces. ETSI describes the high-level NFV functional architectural framework and the design of virtualised network functions and of the supporting infrastructure. It identifies three main working domains in NFV: 1. Virtualised network function is the software implementation of a network function which can run over the NFVI. 2. NFV infrastructure (NFVI) includes the diversity of physical resources and how these can be virtualised. NFVI supports the execution of the VNFs. 3. NFV management and orchestration (MANO) covers the orchestration and lifecycle management of physical and/or software resources that support the virtualisation of the infrastructure, and the lifecycle management of VNFs. The initial release of the ETSI NFV specification was predominantly dependent on hypervisorbased virtual machines (VMs) for virtualisation. Most of the specifications in ETSI NFV continue serving that purpose when being applied to the cloud native NFV. Nevertheless, an adaption is needed in some areas because of the differences between the VM based and cloud native solutions. Thus, the ETSI NFV group has published containerised VNF specifications enabling containerised VNFs to be managed in an NFV framework. The ETSI NFV group has published ETSI GS NFV-IFA 040 , which specifies the requirements for service interfaces and is an object model for operating system (OS) container management and orchestration. These specifications provide a baseline for the integration of OS container management and orchestration into the NFV framework. ETSI GS NFV-IFA 040 also specifies requirements on the list of services to be offered by architectural elements providing the Container Infrastructure Service Management (CISM) and Container Image Registry (CIR) functions described in ETSI GR NFV-IFA 029 and on the interfaces for exposing these services to NFV-MANO and other consuming entities. The CISM is responsible for maintaining the containerised workloads and manages the OS container, computation storage, network resources and their configuration. The CIR is responsible for storing and maintaining information on OS container software images. ETSI GS NFV-IFA 040 is supplemented by the NFV Release 4 specifications ETSI GS NFV-IFA 11 12 010 and ETSI GS NFV-IFA 011 . These provide enhancements for the specification of the management and orchestration functional requirements, and extensions to the VNF package and VNF descriptor specifications respectively. The considerably high level NFV architecture for 5G is in line with the ETSI NFV reference architecture [7], the NFV-MANO architectural framework [8], the ETSI NFV Adaptation to the Cloud Native Architecture [9] [10], and the ENISA 5G threat landscape [6] (section 3.7) (Figure 5). Table 2 describes the main NFV [7] and MANO [8] components of this architecture. In Figure 5, the main NFV components covering both VM-based and cloud native (container based) are highlighted. In this report, it is assumed that the VIM supports the CISM to be able to manage both VMs and containers virtualisation technologies. As explained in ETSI GR NFV-IFA 029, there are multiple options to integrate the CISM within the NFV MANO. Only option #1 (CISM embedded in the VIM) is highlighted for reasons of simplicity since the aim is to give a big picture of the NFV 17 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 architecture without going into the details of all these options already explained in ETSI GR NFV-IFA 029. More details about the 5G NFV architecture can be found in [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16]. More details about the different MANO solutions are given in Annexes H and I. Table 2: NFV and MANO main components Security-related Description Network Function

text: NFV (Network Functions Virtualisation)

text: • NFV Infrastructure (NFVI): The NFVI consists of all the hardware and software components that are contained within the environment in which VNFs are deployed. It provides virtualised computing, storage, and networking. One of the advantages of NFV is that the NFV-Infrastructure can be located across several physical locations, allowing operators to typically place their centres at the most convenient locations. The network providing connectivity between these locations is part of the NFV- Infrastructure.

text: • Operations Support System/Business Support System (OSS/BSS): includes the collection of applications that a service provider uses to operate its business. While OSS deals with network Common components management, fault management, configuration management and service management, BSS deals with between VM-based and customer management, product management, order management and billing.

text: cloud native NFV

text: • Element Management System (EMS): is responsible for the configuration, fault management,

text: (network functions

text: accounting and collection of performance measurement results for the network functions provided by

text: virtualisation)

text: the VNF. An example of management function is fault, configuration, accounting, performance and security management (FCAPS).

text: • Hardware Resources: in NFV, the physical hardware resources include computing, storage and networks that provide processing, storage and connectivity to VNFs through the virtualisation layer (Host OS, Hypervisor, CIS).

text: • Virtualised Network Function (VNF): an implementation of an NF that can be deployed on a network function virtualisation infrastructure (NFVI). VNFs are built from one or more VNF components (VNFC) and, in most cases, the VNFC is hosted on a single VM or container.

text: 18 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Security-related Description Network Function

text: • Virtualised Network Function Component (VNFC): is an internal component of a VNF that provides a VNF provider with a defined sub-set of that VNF's functionality. Its main characteristic is that a single instance of this component maps 1:1 against a single instance of an atomic deployable unit. An instance of an atomic deployable unit is represented by a single VM for hypervisor-based virtualisation or represented by one or a set of OS containers for CIS (Container Infrastructure Service) based virtualisation.

text: • Virtualisation layer: it consists of two sub layers: a host OS and hypervisor (for VMs) and CIS (for containers).

text: • Container Infrastructure Service (CIS): the cloud-native equivalent of hypervisor is container infrastructure service (CIS), which provides all the runtime infrastructural dependencies for one or more container virtualisation technologies. It can run on top of a bare metal or hypervisor-based virtualisation.

text: Cloud native

text: It is used to create, destroy and manage containers on top of an operating system.

text: components within NFV

text: • Container: is a virtualisation container using a shared operating system (OS) kernel of its host. Containers can host a VNF component (VNFC) for instance.

text: • Hypervisor: is a piece of software which partitions the underlying physical resources and creates virtual machines, and isolates the VMs from each other. It is running either directly on top of the hardware (bare metal hypervisor type 1) or running on top of a hosting operating system (hosted hypervisor type 2). The abstraction of resources comprises all those entities inside a computer or server which are accessible, such as processor, memory/storage, NICs. The hypervisor enables the

text: VM-based components

text: portability of VMs to different Hardware.

text: within NFV

text: • Virtual Machine (VM): has all the ingredients (processor, memory/storage, interfaces/ports) of a physical computer or server and is generated by a hypervisor, which partitions the underlying physical resources and allocates them to VMs. Virtual machines can host a VNF component (VNFC) for instance.

text: NFV MANO (Management and Orchestration)

text: • Network Function Virtualisation Orchestrator (NFVO): is responsible for coordinating the VNFM and VIM according to the requirements of the OSS/BSS to orchestrate a specific service such as a firewall or to detect intrusions. It implements resource and service orchestration in the network. NFVO is split up into resource orchestrator (RO) and network service orchestrator (NSO).

text: • First, RO collects the current information regarding possible physical and virtual resources of NFVI through the VIM. Second, NSO applies a complete lifecycle management of multiple network services. In this way, NFVO keeps updating the information about the available VNFs running on top of NFVI. As a result, NFVO can initiate multiple network services. As part of the lifecycle management, NFVO can also terminate a network service whenever a service request is no longer being received for that specific service.

text: Common components

text: o instantiation of VNFs

text: o scaling of VNFs

text: o updating and/or upgrading

text: o VNFs Termination of VNFs.

text: • Virtual Infrastructure Manager (VIM): is the management system for NFVI. It is responsible for VM-based components controlling and managing the interaction of a VNF with the underlying computing, storage and within NFV MANO networking resources and their virtualisation. It performs resource management tasks such as inventory of hypervisors, allocation of VMs onto hypervisors or increasing resources to VMs. Moreover, it performs operations on the visibility of the NFVI, analysis of data on the performance of the

text: 19 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Security-related Description Network Function

text: infrastructure and collection of information for capacity planning, monitoring and optimisation. Consequently, VIM can supervise the allocation of NFVI resources to the available VNFs. OpenStack and OpenVIM20 (for VNFs) are possible solutions for VIM.

text: • Container Infrastructure Service Management (CISM): is a functional block that manages one or more container infrastructure services. The CISM provides mechanisms for lifecycle management of the managed container infrastructure objects, which are hosting application components as services or functions. It is a cloud-native equivalent of virtualised infrastructure manager (VIM).

text: • CISM is responsible for controlling and managing the NFVI compute, storage and network resources, as well as scheduling the microservice containers in the cloud. CISM also collects performance measurements in the infrastructure including container level and makes the data available for other functional blocks for monitoring purposes. Other responsibilities of CISM include virtual networking control and management, as well as the southbound integration with various network controllers to achieve the physical network control and management capabilities. Cloud native 21 • Kubernetes (for cloud native NFs) is a possible solution for CISM. Multiple options can be envisioned

text: components within NFV

text: for mapping the CISM functionality to NFV-MANO as outlined in ETSI GR NFV-IFA 029 and ETSI GS

text: MANO

text: NFV-IFA 040. Each option has it is pros and cons. Such options include:

text: o Option#1: CISM embedded in the VIM,

text: o Option#2: CISM distributed across VNFM and VIM,

text: o Option#3: CISM as a stand-alone functional block,

text: o Option#4: CISM-only replacing VIM and VNFM,

text: o Option#5: CISM embedded into VNF with support for shared container service,

text: o Option#6: CISM embedded into VNF without support for shared container service.

text: Other

text: NFV SM is a function that applies security policy to a virtualised network based on both predefined default policy and active analysis of information provided through security monitoring. It is responsible for enforcing security policy for VNFs and for instructing NFV-MANO to take VNF specific or system wide security actions [17], [18]. The security manager is a logical subcomponent of a CSP's overall network security management and monitoring systems. A CSP security management platform may require one or more security managers (SMs) depending on the security isolation and role separation required between different trust domains. In cooperation with MANO blocks dedicated to managing the virtualised network, the policy driven SM is specialised to manage the security on a network service over its entire lifecycle. It covers the following

text: NFV Security Managers

text: functionalities:

text: (SM)

text: • Security Policy Planning designs and optimises security policies for specific targets of protection (e.g. network services);

text: • Security Policy Enforcement & Validation automates the deployment and supports the lifecycle management of security functions as defined in the design phase, then configures security policies on the security functions. In addition, during the lifetime of a network service, the validation and re-configuration or remediation of associated security policies is supported, also in an automated manner.

text: 2.3 NFV WITH SDN ROLES Besides the NFV technology, management and deployment of 5G technology is simplified by the adoption of complementary technologies enabling flexible usage of deployed hardware and fast provisioning of new functions and services, namely the SDN. The core similarity between software-defined networking (SDN) and network functions virtualisation (NFV) is that they both use network abstraction. SDN seeks to separate network control functions from network forwarding functions, while NFV seeks to abstract network forwarding and other networking functions from the hardware on which it runs. 20 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Thus, both depend heavily on virtualisation to enable network design and infrastructure to be abstracted in software and then implemented by underlying software across hardware platforms and devices [19]. When SDN executes on an NFV infrastructure, SDN forwards data packets from one network device to another. At the same time, SDN's networking control functions for routing, policy definition and applications run in a VM or container somewhere on the network. Thus, NFV provides basic networking functions, while SDN controls and orchestrates them for specific uses. SDN further allows configuration and behaviour to be programmatically defined and modified [19]. SDN and NFV differ in how they separate functions and abstract resources. SDN abstracts physical networking resources – switches, routers and so on – and moves decision making to a virtual network control plane. In this approach, the control plane decides where to send traffic, while the hardware continues to direct and handle the traffic. NFV aims to virtualise all physical network resources beneath a hypervisor, which allows the network to grow without the addition of more devices [19]. While both SDN and NFV make networking architectures more flexible and dynamic, they perform different roles in defining those architectures and the infrastructure they support [19]. A whole overview of the NFV/SDN architecture is shown Figure 6. This architecture takes into account SDN and NFV technologies. On one hand, the framework presents a layered structure: infrastructure, control and application layers, in the same way as SDN architecture. Moreover, it takes advantage of the NFV concept to allow the easy implementation and management of network functions, without the need to increase the hardware devices [20], [21]. Figure 6: Integrating SDN Controller into the reference NFV architecture The SDN controller centralises the control plane functionalities and provides an abstract view of all the connectivity-related components it manages. The SDN Controller sets up and manages the underlying networking resources to provide the required connectivity for communicating the VNFs. Managed by the VIM, this controller may change infrastructure behaviour on-demand according to VIM specifications, adapted from the requests of tenants. 21 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 In the infrastructure layer, we have the current mobile infrastructure of the network operator providing support to a wide range of wireless and cellular technologies such as WiFi, LTE, UTMS, GSM, among others. On top of the hardware layer, there is a virtualisation layer to enable the virtualisation of hardware devices. The resources could be in different locations and datacentres and this takes three components into account: • networking: these devices incorporate mobile technologies and OpenFlow protocol; • storage: this element can include object storage or block storage (Swift and Cinder OpenStack) or another novel technique; • computing: this includes high volume servers. The control layer is in charge of monitoring, analysis, management and orchestration of devices. It consists of four modules: monitoring, analyser, network OS and NFV MANO. • Monitoring Module: this module is able to provide the complete low-level overview of the managed systems by means of gathering metrics coming from different network devices. • Analyser Module: this module could give a deep analysis of the data in order to determine the behaviour that suits the network. This module also can infer the recommended behaviour of the network. The techniques used in the analysis can include data mining, learning algorithms and pattern recognition, among others. • Network OS: this uses the OpenFlow or similar protocols to send instructions to the infrastructure layer elements. Its functionality is similar to an operating system (OS) in computing. • NFV MANO: this module determines and organises the actions to be executed in the system, the orchestration, the management of the resources and the control functions. SDN/NFV control layer can adapt the network resources depending on the actual situation of the network and dynamically respond to failures or degradation of network performance. On the top of the architecture is located the application layer, which consists of two basic modules: • Communication Interface: this module enables an open API for programmers to facilitate the development of new services. • Network Functions: this module presents a scalable structure to create customised network functions or control applications. 2.4 5G NFV STAKEHOLDERS Table 3 illustrates the actors that hold stakes in the 5G NFV markets, forming different clusters who would be active in 5G ecosystems. First, the stakeholders from the traditional 5G industry are those who provide connectivity solutions, equipment, SW and cloud providers. They are the actors who take part in developing, delivering and providing 5G services. Second, policy makers and standard setting organisations have defined 5G as we know it today. Third, vertical industries are important stakeholders providing different services to third parties. [22], [23], [24], [25], [26] were used as references for the development of this chapter. The 5G NFV network architecture implies the introduction of new processes, activities and operations thus defining new technical roles (e.g. administrators, integrators) and responsibilities involved in the operation, administration and maintenance of the 5G NFV. The operation, administration and maintenance of 5G NFV infrastructure requires much effort and particular skill profiles need to be employed. Listings of the roles, responsibilities and the corresponding technical processes and activities are provided in Annex A. Each role can belong to multiple stakeholders. 22 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Table 3: 5G NFV stakeholders 5G stakeholders Description

text: The MNO operates its mobile network infrastructure to provide connectivity and network services to

text: Mobile Network Operator (MNO)

text: end-users. These vendors provide the network infrastructure including servers to run SDN controllers, switches, routers, gateways, radio hardware, etc. In addition, they are in charge of: • providing capability and procedures to securely configure the network device; • providing a process for users, including security researchers, to submit bug reports (e.g. using Network Equipment Vendors an issue tracker or a mailing list); • testing according to 3GPP test plans and this testing should include security tests of the device and its interfaces; • setting up a vulnerability management process of monitoring, identifying, evaluating, treating and reporting on security vulnerabilities in the network device including firmware; • maintenance of the firmware that includes providing patches for bugs and vulnerabilities. They develop and provides NFs (e.g. VNF, PNF). In addition, they are in charge of: • providing capability and procedures to securely configure NFs; • providing a process for users, including security researchers, to submit bug reports (e.g. using an issue tracker or a mailing list);

text: NFs Vendors

text: • testing according to 3GPP test plans and this testing should include security tests of NFs and its interfaces; • setting up a vulnerability management process for monitoring, identifying, evaluating, treating and reporting on security vulnerabilities; • maintenance of NFs that includes providing patches for bugs and vulnerabilities. They provide the virtualised infrastructure comprising computing resources (e.g. from computing platforms) and storage nodes. In addition, they are in charge of: • setting up a vulnerability management process for monitoring, identifying, evaluating, treating and reporting on security vulnerabilities in the virtualisation hardware infrastructure;

text: Virtualisation Hardware

text: Infrastructure Providers • setting up a patch development, testing and delivery processes; • maintenance of the hardware infrastructure that includes providing patches for bugs and vulnerabilities; • providing a process for users, including security researchers, to submit bug reports (e.g. using an issue tracker or a mailing list). They provide the security hardware technologies used within servers such as trusted platform modules (TPM), trusted execution environment (TEE), hardware security modules (HSM) and secure enclaves in CPUs. In addition, they are in charge of: • setting up a vulnerability management process for monitoring, identifying, evaluating, treating Vendors of Security Hardware and reporting on security vulnerabilities;

text: Modules

text: • setting up a patch development, testing and delivery processes; • maintenance that includes providing patches for bugs and vulnerabilities; • providing a process for users, including security researchers, to submit bug reports (e.g. using an issue tracker or a mailing list); • 22 certification according to a recognised scheme such as Common Criteria .

text: 23 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 5G stakeholders Description

text: They provide the virtualised infrastructure services that designs, builds, and operates virtualisation infrastructure(s). The infrastructure comprises software for compute nodes such as hypervisors, host operating systems and CISs.

text: In addition, they are in charge of:

text: • setting up a vulnerability management process for monitoring, identifying, evaluating, treating Virtualisation Software and reporting on security vulnerabilities in the virtualisation software infrastructure;

text: Infrastructure Providers

text: • setting up a patch development, testing and delivery processes;

text: • maintenance of the software infrastructure that includes providing patches for bugs and vulnerabilities;

text: • providing a process for users, including security researchers, to submit bug reports (e.g. using an issue tracker or a mailing list).

text: Mobile Virtual Network MVNOs work with MNOs to offer their telecom services by acquiring the required network capacity Operators (MVNO) for customers.

text: Cloud Providers They provide computation and storage resources to third parties.

text: Over-The-Top (OTT) Content These providers offer different applications and services to end users based on their demands and And Service Providers quality requirements.

text: Communications Service Communications Service Providers (CSPs) include service providers such as Mobile Network Providers (CSPs) Operators (MNO) and Mobile Virtual Network Operators (MVNO).

text: Law Enforcement Organisations They should have access to control and sometimes intercept user data in 5G networks in the and Governmental Agencies regulated framework of Lawful Interception.

text: Government regulators or regulatory agencies include bodies such as the Federal Communications

text: Regulators and Policymakers

text: Commission (US), European Commission (EU), etc.

text: These include international associations, alliances with a geographical, thematic or sectorial focus,

text: Standardisation Bodies

text: such as the International Telecommunication Union, GSMA, 3GPP, etc.

text: These provide various services to third parties that exploit resources (network and cloud)

text: Vertical Markets

text: specifically from operators and cloud service providers.

text: These users have a subscription and can therefore access virtualised services. When they access a End Users or Subscribers service, they directly or indirectly generate a data flow within the control plan, then the user plan. Their communications are transported by the user plan.

text: 2.5 NFV SECURITY OPPORTUNITIES Despite potential challenges due to the use of recent technologies such as NFV and SDN in 5G networks, these same technologies also open new opportunities. The main opportunities for NFV to improve the 5G security and trustworthiness are provided in Table 4 ([22], [27]). Table 4: NFV security opportunities NFV security Description opportunities

text: This is provided by the management and orchestration (MANO) layer. NFV MANO provides the opportunity to automate the creation, reconfiguration and scaling in and out of network functions, and to do it in real time on the fly, based on workload needs. The automation feature provided by NFV MANO allows the security

text: Increased automation

text: controls and mitigations to be automated. For instance, the logging of security events, monitoring, detection, prevention, verification of integrity, patch management and others can be instantiated and provided as a service to network functions and applications.

text: In the 5G network, multi-tenancy drives the need for the logical separation of virtual resources among tenants. Through orchestration, certain VNFs can be deployed on separate VMs or containers and compute

text: Security zoning and

text: nodes, and they can be further segregated by using separate networks. In addition, the use of security zones

text: segmentation

text: allows VNFs to be deployed on or migrated to hosts that satisfy security-pertinent criteria such as location and level of hardening (for example, some hosts may employ the trusted computing technology).

text: 24 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 NFV security Description opportunities

text: The NFV allows for the dynamic distribution not only of the instantiated VNFs throughout the virtualised infrastructure at the edge, at the core or at the RAN, but also for security. 5G network services are deployed

text: Distributed security

text: across multiple administrative domains. NFV admins can instantiate new monitoring instances, reconfigure

text: services

text: or modify the existing ones at the right location in the network according to available resources or security contexts.

text: NFV eases the deployment of security updates. An upgraded instance of the VNF can be launched and tested while the previous instance remains active. Services and customers can then be migrated to the

text: Patch management

text: upgraded instance over a period of time (shorter or longer as dictated by operational needs). The older instance with the un-patched security flaw can be retired once the process is complete.

text: NFV opens up the possibility to automate and improve the incident response. This automated incident response provides rapid and flexible re-configuration of virtual resources. In addition, it eases the Incident response decommissioning and re-commissioning of VNFs. If a VNF is compromised (for example, through unauthorised access via a back door), an uncompromised version can be instantiated to replace it and the compromised version can be decommissioned and a copy of it made for forensic analysis.

text: Programmability offers the flexibility and dynamicity needed to have adaptable security mechanisms such as

text: Programmability

text: logging, policy monitoring, and verification mechanisms.

text: In SDN, forwarding elements are directly connected to and controlled by controller software (e.g. Ryu or Centralised control and OpenDaylight ). This centralisation of the control plane enables a defence system to rapidly respond to traffic steering network changes from a central controller through updating the forwarding rules of the entire network infrastructure, e.g. suspicious traffic can be dynamically detected and re-directed to security appliances.

text: Network slicing is released by virtualisation using SDN, NFV and cloud computing technologies. The E2E multi-domain and multi-tenancy support in 5G network slicing promises to enable vertical industries with a

text: Network slicing

text: diverse set of performance, service and security requirements. Network slicing will give operators capabilities of creating different level of services for different verticals, enabling them to customise their operations.

text: 2.6 NFV KEY TECHNOLOGIES This section presents an overview on different virtualisation, containerisation and MANO technologies [28] currently being used in 5G to run and orchestrate multiple VNFs at the core, edge and RAN. It examines the differences between using virtual machines (VMs) vs containers vs unikernel vs cloud native microservices in the context of 5G. 2.6.1 Virtualisation 2.6.1.1 Hypervisor Hypervisor-based virtualisation provides isolated environments on top of a shared pool of resources [29], [30]. Hypervisor is a software layer that abstracts the underlying physical resources and provides virtual machines with the full functionalities of a real system. Moreover, a hypervisor is responsible for resource allocation to the VM as well as being responsible for monitoring and managing VMs through coordination with the primary OS of the underlying hardware. There are two types of hypervisors known as Type 1 and Type 2. • Based on Type I – Bare Metal Hypervisor: a type 1 hypervisor runs directly on the host machine's physical hardware, and it's referred to as a bare-metal or native hypervisor. The type I hypervisor doesn't have to load an underlying OS. It does not need any host OS because the communication to hardware resources is direct with full visibility of hardware resources [30]. • Based on Type II - Hosted Hypervisor: a type 2 hypervisor is typically installed on top of an existing OS. It is sometimes called a hosted hypervisor because it relies on 25 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 the host machine's pre-existing OS to manage calls to CPU, memory, storage and network resources. The bare-metal hypervisors (type I) are a more secure option. Unlike the hosted hypervisor, they do not depend on the underlying OS. Table 5 summarises the features of Type I and Type II hypervisors [31]. Table 5: Features of type I and type II hypervisors Criteria Type I Type II

text: AKA Bare metal Hosted

text: Definition Runs directly on server hardware Runs on top of the supported OS

text: Scalability Better scalability Not so much, because of its reliance on the underlying OS

text: System Has direct access to hardware along with VMs, its Is not allowed to directly access the host hardware and its independence hosts resources

text: Performance Provides better hardware resource utilisation Provides less hardware resource utilisation.

text: Less secure as it is a software-based hypervisor. Any Security More secure as it is a hardware-based hypervisor problem in the OS may affect the entire system including the protected hypervisor.

text: In many such hypervisors, setup is hard and In many such hypervisors, setup is easy as there is already

text: Setup or installation

text: hardware support is needed. an OS.

text: VMware vSphere, Microsoft Hyper-V, KVM, Xen Oracle VM VirtualBox, VMware Workstation Pro and Examples 25 Hypervisor, Oracle VM, Citrix Hypervisor VMware Fusion, QEMU, Parallels Desktop, KVM

text: 2.6.1.2 Virtual machines A VM is a type of virtualisation that splits bare metal servers into multiple independent instances with separate operating systems inside. The operating system, applications and services are all bundled into a single image that is accessed via a hypervisor, built on virtualised hardware. Such virtualisation allows us to move away from the approach of running one application or service per physical server and achieve better utilisation of capacity. The sizing of the VM will depend on the resources available and the characteristics of the application that is going to be executed on this machine. Within the VM, it is possible to run different OS depending on the necessities or requirements of the application running on top of it. A VM consists of several files that are stored on a storage device. The key files are the configuration file, virtual disk file, NVRAM setting file and log file [28]. Some of the most 26 27 28 interesting functions that VMs enable are Snapshots , Migration and Failover [32]. 2.6.2 Cloud native 26 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Cloud-native is an approach to building and running applications that fully exploits the benefits of the cloud computing model. Applications are cloud-native network functions. 5G NFs, as a cloud native NF, is designed using the following important cloud-native principles. 2.6.2.1 Containerisation OS-level virtualisation represents the containerisation model, which envisages that only the applications and their dependencies are integrated into a container. Each container shares the host OS kernel operating on bare metal, as well as its binaries and libraries so the applications run quickly and reliably from one computing environment to another . As a result, containers are exceptionally lightweight and fast to start. Containers allow for more efficient implementation of microservices principles due to their elasticity and ease of provisioning. Containers are more commonly adopted by cloud-native applications, as each service component becomes a separate element in a microservices architecture. Many types of containerisation technologies are available, for instance: • Docker containers: this is a popular open-source project based on Linux containers. Docker is written in GO and developed by Dotcloud. Docker is basically a container engine (ETSI CIS) which uses the Linux kernel features like namespaces and control groups to create containers on top of an operating system and automates application deployment on the container. • Java containers: these types of software packages enable standalone functioning of Java applications or parts of them. Examples: Springboot, Jetty, Tomcat. • LXD containers: represent Linux containers software technology that is very similar to various Linux distributions. These are integrated with the OpenNebula EDGE platform. • 30 OpenVZ containers : Open Virtuozzo is a dedicated container-based virtualisation technology specially created for Linux operating systems. • RKT containers: rocket containers and RKT container engine were developed by CoreOS for the majority of Linux distributions in a cloud-native environment. This type of container is composed of a pod (like in the Kubernetes model and concept) with one or more applications inside. • Hyper-V containers: they constitute a different type of container because they create their own copy of the Windows OS kernel and are completely isolated, having incorporated both kernel space and user modes. They can be easily associated with a VM. 2.6.2.2 Microservices A 5G NF, as a cloud native NF, is composed of cloud-native network functions components that combine to enable 5G-specific features. The basic components of a cloud native NF are microservices, which can be executed independently in separate containers, be deployed independently, and be re-composed when creating a new cloud native NF. These microservicebased cloud native NFs are highly scalable and can enable the deployment of new features quickly. A microservices architecture develops a single application as a suite of small services, each of which run their own process and communicate with lightweight mechanisms. Applications designed from the beginning as a microservice may have the innovation needed for the new telecom service environment. The microservices architecture requires a high degree of orchestration. Moreover, consideration must be given to whether decomposing into a microservice can actually be counterproductive. 27 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Because microservicing supports cloud-native architecture, it can create problems with latency, which is the death knell for 5G applications and services. While mobile operators stand to benefit tremendously from fully deployed 5G networks, the reality is that there are a number of foundational issues that must be addressed to ensure those networks provide the speed, latency and reliability that 5G applications demand. As is generally true in technology, a hybrid approach to developing VM, container and microservices technologies is likely the best pragmatic path forward for operators . By combining the main principles ‘containerisation’ and ‘microservices’ operators can build a 5G network with cloud-native network functions. 2.6.3 Hybrid virtualisation and containerisation With the development of cloud native technology, the telco infrastructure is on a path to leveraging the container-based architecture. But until then, solutions will incorporate a mixture of VMs and containers. In virtualised legacy networks like the EPC and 5G Non-Standalone (NSA) core, network functions that create real-time services and manage the user plane traffic typically run on VMs, which is appropriate for supporting services that do not have strict latency requirements or network configurations. Meanwhile, operators use containers for broadband services that need scalability or services that are not susceptible to failures. Therefore, to support interworking with existing networks, the 5G network requires virtualisation and cloud native technology that can support both VMs and containers at the same time. Typical VMs, containers and hybrid architectures are depicted in Figure 7. 28 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 2.6.4 Unikernels Unikernel is an alternative to both VMs and containers for lightweight virtualisation of resources. It can embed only one application and a limited set of its dependencies which, differently from containers, also includes the libraries for hardware resource management [33]. It emerged due to the idea that the majority of the functions running either in the cloud or at the edge do not require many of the services inherent to OSs, and thus those services can be excluded. Unikernels are single-purpose appliances that are specialised at compile time into standalone kernels . They are constructed with the minimal necessary libraries, modularly, compiled together with the application code into an image (no division between kernel and user spaces) that can be run on top of a hypervisor or directly on a hardware layer. Different library OSs (e.g. IncludeOS, UKL, MirageOS, OSv, Rumprun, runtime.js) can be used to develop unikernels, with slightly different security profiles, programming languages (some of them aiming to avoid programming directly in C), and legacy compatibility. Among other advantages, unikernels improve security over other virtualisation paradigms since (i) they have no other functions or ports apart from the specific application they were built for, thus the attack surface is minimal, and (ii) they achieve a degree of isolation similar to VMs and much higher than containers, since the latter share a common kernel. Besides, due to their specialisation, unikernels come with the benefit of faster boot times and lower image sizes than containers, as well as a similar degree of memory consumption when running. Still, unikernels have some drawbacks that come mainly from their immaturity. The most critical one is related to the high development times as (i) kernel functionalities have to be carefully selected and configured for the specific application, (ii) there is a lack of tools designed for debugging unikernels, and (iii) to be updated they have to be shut down, updated, recompiled and instantiated, a set of operations that is not possible to run on the fly. The nature of unikernels make them suitable for deploying stateless, high-response, lowlatency VNFs located at Edge nodes. General algorithms (e.g. compression, encryption, data 29 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 aggregation) and specific functions for vehicular edge computing (VEC), edge computing for smart cities and augmented reality (AR) are use cases in which unikernels can be of utility. The UNICORE project , which aims at providing a toolchain for facilitating the development of secure, portable, scalable, lightweight and high performance unikernels, foresees their potential application in 5G-RAN, vCPE and serverless computing, among other fields. As current virtualised infrastructure managers (VIMs) support unikernels, some H2020 5G-PPP projects 36 37 38 39 (such as 5G-MEDIA , 5GCity , Superfluidity , 5G-Complete , etc.) are using them jointly with VMs and containers within their 5G deployments, being leveraged in tandem with conforming services thus benefiting from their respective advantages. 2.6.5 VMs vs containers vs unikernels Operators have been deploying VNFs for several years to replace hardware-based appliances. Operators deploy network functions virtualisation (NFV) in one of three ways: on virtual machines (VMs) with hypervisors; in containers; or using a hybrid approach. VMs have their own operating system (OS), while containers share an OS. As such, containers are more efficient because they don’t require multiple operating systems per host. However, containers present several challenges for telecom-grade environments. The first challenge is that sharing the OS creates the potential for applications and their containers to interfere with each other or create resource contention. For mobile operators in particular, this approach creates difficulties in both the control and data planes for a 5G environment, where latency, efficiency, security and a high level of distribution are needed. Unikernels, as a third option, primarily target the drawbacks of legacy VMs by compressing the kernel and shared libraries to the bare minimum while maintaining compatibility with the traditional cloud virtualisation stacks (hypervisors, controllers, MANO). Differently from containers, which have a shared kernel, each unikernel has its own kernel. This allows better isolation than containers. Table 6 provides a comparison of virtualisation technologies. In addition, Figure 8 illustrates the main differences between the architecture of VMs, containers and unikernels [33]. Table 6: Virtualisation technologies comparison Feature Virtual Machines Containers Unikernels Isolation Strong Weak Strong Image size Large Small Small Instantiation (boot time) Slow Fast Fast Memory consumption (resource overhead) High Low Medium Toolset Strong Strong Weak Figure 8: Comparison of the architecture of VMs, containers and unikernels 30 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 2.7 NFV DEPLOYMENT MODELS In a virtualised environment the underlying hardware, as well as the virtual dynamic network where the NFVs reside, may be shared by multiple tenants and there are a number of different deployment scenarios with varying risks. Such shared resources may expose security risks on several different levels and the severity of the risk may depend on the nature of such tenants. Below are the main NFV deployment models with varying risks that may be considered in a virtualised environment. Main references used to develop this section are: [32], [23], [34], [35]. 2.7.1 Single operator environment The same operator owns, operates and controls completely the VNFs, the virtualisation layer and the hardware and the premises in which they are located (see Figure 9). In this model, the operator is only exposed to its own network elements and functions. In this model, the operator must cater for most of the risks, since it has to implement security measures to protect the different layer of NFV including VNFs, virtual resources, and physical infrastructure. The operator must also implement robust Identity, credential and access management policies to protect its assets and prevent attacks such as man-in-the-middle, whereby an attacker (e.g. a malicious or compromised tenant) can illegitimately access the offered service. Malicious insiders in the operator’s system administration represent a further risk of compromising the operator’s reputation and exposing security risks to the tenant, which may receive compromised services that may violate its data. In this model, the tenant has no control over the infrastructure. Tenant data are stored within the operator infrastructure and, thus, it is of paramount importance that strong security measures necessary to protect these data are applied. Such measures include the prevention of data loss and strong isolation when data belonging to different tenants share the same server (or resources). Data breaches can also happen when a malicious tenant violates someone’s data. With this model, consumers usually access the services offered through web browsers, thus the operator must not overlook vulnerabilities in the software offered and in the protocols used (e.g. HTTP) in order to protect its network from attacks. A typical category of attack is the abuse and nefarious use of services performed, for example, by a consumer who executes a malware injection or DoS attack on the operator’s server, profiting from the services offered. Figure 9: Single operator environment model 31 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 2.7.2 Operator hosting virtual network operators This is based on the single operator environment model. In this model, the network operator hosts other virtual network operators within the same facility. It would probably isolate each virtual operator on separate hardware. However, in theory, the VMs or containers of different virtual network operators could run alongside each other over the same virtualisation layer (see Figure 10). In this model, the operator is exposed to its own network elements and functions, as well as the network elements and functions of the other virtual operators. Figure 10: Operator hosting virtual network operators model 2.7.3 Third party hosting A third-party cloud provider operates the computer hardware, infrastructure network and the virtualisation layer on which VNFs are running. The premises, including cable chambers, patch panels, etc., are physically secured by the third-party cloud provider. There are three scenarios in this model (see Figure 11): • scenario 1 – separate cloud for a single operator: in this scenario, the platform runs the VNFs of a single operator; • scenario 2 – community cloud for multiple operators: in this scenario, the platform runs the VNFs of multiple operators; • scenario 3 – public cloud for operators and other service providers: in this scenario, the platform runs operator’s VNFs or other non-network related services. In all scenarios, the operators are always accountable and responsible for the protection of VNFs and data. In all scenarios, the operator is exposed to its own network elements and functions as well as to the third-party hosting service that may not be accountable and that may be able to transparently gather information emitted from the network infrastructure. In scenario 2, the operator may also be exposed to network traffic from other operators. In scenario 3, the operator may also be exposed to network traffic from other operators as well as 32 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 traffic from other services that may have lesser security and/or integrity requirements than the operator. In this model, the operator must avoid software VNF vulnerabilities to prevent an attacker from making a nefarious use of services. For its part, the cloud provider must avoid software flaws in the operating system, in the virtual resources and servers offered to the operator(s) while guaranteeing them access to the platform through secure APIs to prevent malware Injections. Due to weak isolation among resources of the platform assigned to different VNFs belonging to diverse operators or to the non-network services of other service providers, attacks such as side channel or VM or container data theft may occur. At the same time, applications or non-network related services from other service providers that are not necessarily all trusted may run on the same platform in different VMs or containers, so the operator can be damaged by an attacker that manages to exploit a lack of isolation between a vulnerable VM or container and other VMs or containers or the host machine, thus having illegitimate access to other VNFs belonging to other operators or the cloud provider’s platform. 33 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 2.7.4 Operator hosting third party service providers In this model, the operator leaves to the service provider the task of deploying its own applications, thus executing arbitrary software on the operator infrastructure (see Figure 12). In this case the operator is in charge of protecting its assets, which include data and servers underlying virtual resources offered as MEC services. For the operator, potential threats can be caused in the following situations: (i) elevated privileges are given to a service provider on storage access (data breach risks), (ii) the service provider is able to control the infrastructure offered by the operator through insecure APIs (insecure APIs risks) and execute arbitrary code (higher risk of hijacking of the elements of the infrastructure by malicious service providers), and (iii) a service provider could run malicious code through the operating system of its VM, thus penetrating the operator’s infrastructure, or could, intentionally or accidentally, fail in updating its VM, thus exposing it to attacks. 2.7.5 Summary The different deployment models described above are summarised in Table 7. It shows the actor(s) involved on the management and operation at each layer of the NFV system for each deployment model. The column ‘Location’ states the location where the infrastructure is deployed. The column ‘Cloud Type’ identifies which NFV deployment scenarios are similar to the common deployment models used in cloud computing. The right-most column ‘Suitable for’ also provides the suitability of each deployment model for the core, MEC and/or RAN. Table 7: Virtualisation technologies comparison

text: Virtualisation VNFs/Appl Cloud Deployment model Hardware layer (Host OS, MANO Location Suitable for ications Type Hypervisor, CIS)

text: Single operator Private Operator Operator Operator Operator On premise Core environment Cloud

text: Operator, Operator,

text: Operator hosting

text: Virtual Virtual Private Core, MEC, virtual network Operator Operator On premise Operator Operator Cloud RAN

text: operators

text: (s) (s)

text: Cloud Third party hosting Cloud Vendor Hybrid Core, MEC, Cloud Provider Operator Provider, – scenario 1 Provider Locations Cloud RAN Operator

text: Cloud Third party hosting Cloud Vendor Community Cloud Provider Operators Provider, MEC, RAN – scenario 2 Provider Locations Cloud Operators

text: 34 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: Cloud

text: Operators, Provider, Third party hosting Cloud Vendor Public Cloud Provider Service Operators, MEC – scenario 3 Provider Locations Cloud Providers Service

text: Providers

text: Operator hosting Operator, Operator, On Edge third party service Operator Operator Service Service MEC Premise Cloud providers Providers Providers

text: 35 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 3. 5G NFV: ASSETS, CHALLENGES, VULNERABILITIES AND ATTACK SCENARIOS

text: In this chapter, we identify and describe 5G NFV assets, challenges, vulnerabilities and attack scenarios. This initial step will guide us to identify the best practices and provide recommendations. 3.1 ASSETS To address NFV challenges in a 5G ecosystem, it is essential to identify the assets of such a complex ecosystem. The main asset categories introduced in this report are inspired from the ENISA Threat Landscape for 5G Networks [6] (December 2020), [36] (November 2019) and derived from the 5G NFV architecture described at the beginning of this report. These main categories include components and entities from network products, management and orchestration, data, processes and environment. A complete diagram of the asset mind maps is present in Annex B. Figure 13: 5G NFV asset categories An assessment of the asset categories in maintaining security-related protection properties in terms of CIA (confidentiality, integrity and availability) for each category is provided in Annex A. The critical asset categories of 5G NFV to be protected are as follows (see Figure 13). 36 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 • The NFV network components category includes NFV components network planes, functions, and elements. These divide into multiple asset groups such as core functions, virtualisation infrastructure, network function virtualisation (NFV), physical infrastructure, security, software-defined networking (SDN), Multi-Edge Computing (MEC), among others. • The NFV MANO network components category includes the management of network functions (NFVO, VIM, VNFM), network slicing, operations support system, network/element (EMS/NMS) and SDN Controller. MANO is the most vital part of the 5G infrastructure since it is responsible for controlling the entire set of network functions, their virtualisation and the entire related software lifecycle. • The NFV Data category includes users, applications, VNFs, NS, system, network, SDN, configuration and security-related data. • The NFV processes and environment category includes processes and facilities related to MNOs and vendors. 3.2 SECURITY CHALLENGES While NFV opens the door for flexible networks and rapid service creation, these offer both security opportunities while also introducing additional security challenges and complexities. The 5G networks would essentially promote the use of NFV technologies. NFV, like many new technologies, presents new security challenges and these extend many of the security challenges applicable to NFV to 5G networks. Thus, it is important to address the security challenges appropriately and to focus on instilling stronger security and privacy settings in 5G NFV systems. In this chapter, we identify and describe the security challenges that the 5G NFV may face. Documents used as references for the development of this chapter are provided in Annex G. The challenges have been grouped into categories to make them more understandable. The resulting list consists of seven categories (see Figure 14). Figure 14: Categories of security challenges Each category is provided in one section. Each section starts with an overview of the challenge category followed by a table describing the associated challenges. A high-level mapping table showing the relationship at the category level between challenge categories, vulnerabilities, attacks, affected assets and best practices is provided in section 4.4. A detailed mapping is provided in Annex F. 3.2.1 Virtualisation or containerisation 37 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Cloud, virtualisation, containerisation, edge computing and SDN play additional roles in the era of 5G. The scale, elasticity, agility, responsiveness and rich software functionality required for 5G applications and microservices can only be achieved in the cloud. Today NFV is carried out on VMs and containers, and they’ll continue to be utilised in a 5G environment. As with any new technology, the benefits may also present potential security challenges if proper security measures are not considered. NFV enables network slicing by replacing network functions on appliances such as routers, load balancers and firewalls with instances of virtualised software that run on commodity hardware. Virtual network functions and/or cloud-native network functions are used to run these functions as packaged software which also means a much wider attack area. Moreover, SDNs enable programmable network controls and abstract the underlying infrastructure from the apps and network services. Centralised and controllable, SDNs provide the agility required to adapt to the evolving needs of 5G microservices. However, SDNs are susceptible to attacks such as forwarding device attacks, control pane threats, API vulnerabilities, counterfeit traffic flows and more. In the edge and far edge, operators are introducing VNFs which causes a new set of security challenges. VMs or containers may require elevated privileges to support certain network functions that could cause security vulnerabilities for the host system as well as peer VMs or containers. Due to the unique characteristic of the NFV environment, different network functions can be created and terminated dynamically on different and distributed entities. The NFV approach allows for the dynamic distribution of the instantiated VNFs throughout the virtualised infrastructure at the edge, at the core or at the operator’s datacentre. In the same way, monitoring can also be distributed and take place at different locations in the operator’s network covering different parts of the network. Dynamic distribution of NFV architectures pose major security challenges that need to be considered. A unique aspect of co-residency in NFV is that, in an NFV stack, co-residency can happen between more layers, such as between VNFs and the virtualisation layer or between the virtualisation layer and physical hosts. The co-residency of VNFs on the same physical host can occur due to placement or migration, which is known to lead to side-channel or resource depletion attacks due to the shared physical resources such as CPU, memory, or cache. The co-residency of VNFs on the host can also occur when different tenants employ the same host to run similar network functions, such as virtual firewall or virtual IDS. The fact that multiple tenants are sharing both virtual and physical resources in the same NFV stack poses additional security challenges. Table 8 illustrates the main security challenges raised by the virtualisation or containerisation technologies. Table 8: Main security challenges facing ‘virtualisation or containerisation’ Challenge ID Challenge description title

text: Virtualisation of network functions will increase the network’s vulnerability to attackers due to the increased reliance on software. A NFV software component may contain potential software vulnerabilities or it can be a malware itself. In virtualised implementations all VNFs are implemented using a common software platform such as OpenStack, Kubernetes. Challenges within the While vendors may produce tweaked variants, the code core will be largely identical. Similarly, host OS, CH-V1 hypervisor, CIS and VNFs software will be identical or from a limited set of variants. What this means is that runtime software if an attacker is able to identify a software vulnerability in one VNF, that vulnerability will likely exist in many other VNFs making the attackers job much easier and increases the risk of a cascading security failure in the network. If network security functions (e.g. SEPP) use the same software core or are in the same virtualisation layer trust domain as the functions they are protecting, the risk increases further if a software vulnerability occurs.

text: 38 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Challenge ID Challenge description title

text: Note: the term ‘trust domain’ is defined by ETSI in [17]. It is a collection of entities that share a set of security policies. In NFV networks, multiple trust domains should be considered by CSPs during the deployment phase where a CSP wishes to achieve security role and management separation, security isolation, separation between sensitive and non-sensitive components, etc.

text: Virtualisation technologies such as software-defined networking (SDN) and network functions virtualisation (NFV) are thriving in anticipation of 5G networks. However, they too come with new security concerns. Flexibility and Because of their open, flexible, programmable nature, SDN and NFV open a new avenue of security threats. openness of CH-V2 The promised flexibility and openness of service environments via VNFs raises security concerns since data service environment and NFV software are not directly controlled by the more risk-aware enterprises due to the risk of introspection by a malicious actor with total control on the execution environment entailing memory, storage and processing elements.

text: Hypervisor security mean ensuring that virtualised network elements are protected from exfiltration and VMbased attacks that come from east-west and north-south traffic.

text: The most important software in a NFV is the hypervisor. Any security vulnerability in the hypervisor and Challenges associated infrastructure and management software or tools puts VNFs at risk. CH-V3 within the hypervisor The hypervisor is fully aware of the current state of each guest OS it controls. Hypervisor introspection can enable the ability to view, inject, and/or modify information on the operational status associated with NFV through direct or indirect methods. Access to status information can result in the ability to arbitrarily read and/or write the contents of memory, storage, key storage and other NFV operational aspects.

text: The virtualisation infrastructure provides a flexible environment for hosting several applications and telecommunication services. Precise and secure timing services and time-stamping of events are critical to many of those services (e.g. mobile wireless) and applications (e.g. high frequency trading, financial transactions, banking systems, billing, etc.). The virtualisation infrastructure itself requires timing and synchronisation for fault management (through logging of events) and security management (through identity and access management).

text: A fundamental problem with all virtualised implementations is that VNFs have trouble accurately telling the Time time and generating entropy. Unlike a PNF which can easily be designed to have direct access to a physical

text: manipulation clock, a VNF’s view of time is only virtual.

text: If an attacker or, in some scenarios, a malicious VM or container on the same host is able to manipulate the virtual CPU clock then is it possible to affect management or service functions such as manipulating cryptographic algorithms, key generation or other processes which are highly time dependent or may also impact the synchronisation between UEs and the network. Such manipulation may involve stretching the shape of clock cycles rather than simply increasing or decreasing their frequency. ETSI GR NFV-SEC 016 (draft specification - work in progress) provides more detailed discussion on timing issues with virtualised environments.

text: Entropy is used across VNFs. When VNFs do not have access to high quality entropy it can negatively affect security due to weak cryptographic keys.

text: The key point of cryptography is cryptographic algorithms and keys. The random number generator is used to generate seeds and keys randomly in many cryptographic operations. The strength and security of keys Entropy CH-V5 depends on their randomness. For this reason it is essential to use keys, for instance, to encrypt and decrypt generation information, and the security of these keys is closely related to the quality of entropy. If not enough quality entropy is available predictable keys may be produced, which are susceptible to a breach.

text: For these reasons, a reliable source of entropy ensuring strong and random key generation is required to be used by the cryptographic operations (e.g. encryption).

text: In a virtualised environment it is necessary to explicitly consider the risk to cryptographic processing of data within a VNF where a fully hardened HSM or HMEE (hardware mediated execution environment) is not used to perform the cryptographic function.

text: Most software manipulating data with cryptographic operations will perform modification actions on encrypted data by first unencrypting the data either in general memory (less than ideal) or CPU cache (better but vulnerabilities exist). Following the necessary processing, the data will be encrypted again. Encrypted data CH-V6 Within existing SA3 specifications, while some specialist operations are performed in tamper resistant processing hardware (e.g. UICC), the bulk of cryptographic processing (e.g. user plane protection) will be performed using general X86 (or similar) servers within the core network.

text: In a virtualised environment there are various ways in which unencrypted data can be captured: through the virtualisation layer, server management hardware, modification of VNF images, instantiating a parallel VM or container on the same physical CPU, or any number of other options. The risks of being able to capture encrypted data in an unencrypted form due to the processing of that data, increases significantly. If that processing is highly sensitive (e.g. AUC (authentication centre) or LI functions) then the risk may not be

text: 39 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Challenge ID Challenge description title

text: acceptable. Placing entire VMs into HMEE(s) is unlikely to be needed as it is more appropriate to place specific sub-functions, processes or containers into a HMEE which current CPU based HMEE(s) can support. However, in most cases this support is not currently OS kernel native.

text: In a PNF implementation there are significant differences (pros and cons) between using security protocols such as IPSec designed to protect IP traffic over 3GPP reference points and over the top end to end application layer security (typically using TLS). Both are good at providing protection again a physical attacker trying to attack a physical cable or optical fibre but their characteristics vary in terms of where the encryption terminates in relation to where the data is processed or stored. TLS is considered to terminate closer to the point where a function processes or manages data, whereas IPSec may terminate at a PNF Challenges closer to the edge of the network. within IP layer CH-V7 In flat virtualised deployments with a common virtualisation layer and resources, there is very little difference vs application layer between IPSec and TLS with neither offering, by default, protection from virtualisation layer (host OS, hypervisor, CIS) attacks. In this scenario, both IPSec and TLS tunnels terminate in arbitrary memory locations which will be in the same accessible range as the plain text data they are intended to protect. Unless the IPSec or TLS tunnels transverse a physical network linked externally to the datacentres, the threats they mitigate can largely become irrelevant. Using HMEEs massively improves security (see ETSI TS NFVSEC 012 ). However, it is clearly impractical for all TLS or IPSec endpoints for all control plane or user plane traffic to be terminated in HMEEs.

text: If a new, or a modification of, an existing VNF is deployed or instantiated into the production environment where it is connected to traffic and signalling interfaces, there is a risk that the VNF may become compromised before the element management EMS) has successfully configured the interface security controls. This may be caused by default or due to minimal security controls existing in the VNFD (virtual Default network function descriptor) or image. CH-V8 deployment or configuration A common VNFD instance or image may be used to deploy multiple images of the same VNF. It is probable that each VNFD image will contain the same default security credentials and configuration. Between deployment and configuration these default security credentials may increase the exposure of the NFV elements to compromise, due to, for example, the same guest ‘root’ password, crypto private keys, and TLS/IPsec certificates.

text: Existing monitoring systems need to be adapted and correctly controlled since they were meant mostly for physical and not virtual systems and boundaries, and do not allow fine‐grained analysis adapted to the needs of SDN/NFV based 5G network management. The lack of visibility and controls on internal virtual networks that are created, coupled with the heterogeneity of devices used, make many performance assessment applications ineffective. For instance, existing security monitoring applications cannot monitor virtual connections in 5G network elements. Network traffic CH-V9 Increased virtualisation introduces challenges for network monitoring. Due to the virtualised architecture of exposure 5G networks and deployment of network functions closer to the radio access network or network access edge, it will be more difficult to detect and recognise the types of traffic inside and between VNFs crossing these networks and mitigate against any new threats. This could lead to difficulty in diagnosing network performance issues or failure to spot attackers.

text: Traffic routed through a virtualised network may not be completely accessible for physical firewall controls or visible to traditional security inspections as previously applied on physical networks.

text: NFV should be able to determine the source of attacks and recover, and protect against that source in the future. It should be verified that every security event is logged. NFV components may generate a huge number of logs on the virtualisation platform, therefore log analysis and event correlation in NFV will quickly Security logs become a ‘big data’ issue. Tools also are needed that can address all the forensics and compliance CH- requirements. troubleshooting

text: failure Compromised VNFs can generate a huge number of logs on the virtualisation platform, making it difficult to analyse logs from other VNFs, especially when the initial entries in the log files are deleted. There is also a risk when the infrastructure logs are leaked, as this consequently enables cross relating logs from one VNF operator to another in order to extract sensitive information.

text: Container acceleration capabilities, such as container caching, present security challenges as otherwise encrypted VM equivalent image artefacts may be available in their unencrypted form in the cache to allow for fast container re-instantiation.

text: Container The fast cycle times of containers also make traditional security monitoring and policy enforcement more

text: CH-

text: acceleration challenging as network security enforcement decision engines cannot so easily make real-time decisions on

text: capabilities access permission as is possible for longer lifetime VMs.

text: Techniques using both containers and VMs provide some mitigation (e.g. running all containers for a specific VNF with a large VM, or using VMs for VNF security sensitive components such as TLS end points). Using this approach, however, restricts the flexibility of containers and introduces additional complexity or cost.

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text: From a security and isolation perspective, in the container deployment scenario the VM hypervisor is replaced by a CIS which manages the life-cycle of a container within a given group of containers (e.g. pod or cluster). However, the CIS does not provide equivalent VM security memory isolation or breakout protection. The container application usually runs on ‘bare metal’ with no OS equivalent to the guest OS used in VM based implementations.

text: The newer generation of NFV implementations have chosen to deploy NF as a group of containers due, especially, to the benefits associated with containers and aspects of their deployment over traditional VM deployment. Such deployments can be highly flexible by allowing the operators to deploy multiple NFs as a collection of small microservices on the same physical machines and/or even deploy NF containers within CH- Container VMs. Containers co-hosted on the same physical machine as tenants share the same kernel and OS V12 isolation failure resources. This allows for a potential risk that a rogue container could escape the confinement of the container and have an impact on other co-hosted containers.

text: There are multiple ways for attackers to escape isolation in the container. There have been reports that a number of CVEs have documented known vulnerabilities that have been identified in the past. One way to escape containers is to exploit vulnerabilities in the Linux kernel. The Linux kernel enforces container isolation by employing namespaces and cgroups. However, if attackers gain kernel level privileges through privilege escalation, they can circumvent isolation as reported in CVEs (e.g. CVE-2019-5736, CVE-2020- 15257and CVE-2021-31440). There are CVEs that have reported vulnerabilities in container runtimes that allow container breakouts.

text: There are scenarios which benefit from including configuration and secrets, such as passwords or credentials, in NF container images. For example, containers need to be able to connect to other containers within the deployment as well as with external entities. All these connections need to be authenticated and secured. One way of achieving this is to provide the requisite secrets or keys to the containers which allow them to authenticate and be authenticated and secure the communication channel. A common but in-secure means of providing secrets to the containers is by packaging the secrets or the keys with the image itself. Sensitive data CH- But there is the risk that the same can be extracted, read or manipulated before the container is deployed in NF container V13 and the secret used. images With a long supply chain, container images are vulnerable to outside scrutiny. With container images containing secrets or keys, this becomes a serious threat vector. Adversaries can extract them by obtaining a copy of the image and they can be potentially shared with third parties for illicit gain.

text: • Secrets embedded within a container image can be stolen • Secrets embedded within a container image can be modified

text: Multi-access edge computing (MEC) transforms the way data is processed and stored by moving some core network functions closer to the end user at the network edge, rather than relying on a central location that may be hundreds of miles away. The introduction of untrusted 5G components into the MEC could expose core network elements to risks introduced by software and hardware vulnerabilities, counterfeit components Core network and component flaws caused by poor manufacturing processes or maintenance procedures.

text: CH-

text: functions in the The presence of system components, such as hypervisors, CISs, operating systems and applications in the

text: MEC MEC, may provide malicious actors with additional attack vectors to intercept, manipulate and destroy critical data. Untrusted components or malware inserted within the MEC may impact user privacy by providing malicious actors the capability to clone devices and impersonate end-users to make calls, send texts, and use data. Malicious actors can use untrusted components or malware to gain access to the MEC and enduser components, leveraging them to gain access to the wider radio access network (RAN).

text: As MEC Infrastructures can span a wide geographical distribution and be located in challenging Wide environments, maintaining a uniform datacentre level of physical security is a significant challenge. A geographical CH- potential flaw in the physical security of any MEC hardware may result in physical attack on the distribution of V15 infrastructure. Physical security and environmental vulnerabilities of MEC hosts may arise due to improper MEC physical and environmental security of edge computing facilities, improper security monitoring of edge infrastructures computing facilities, etc.

text: APIs are a well-known subject of multiple attack types, as they are exposed to external access. The Insecure common API framework CAPIF is used by 3GPP as the standardised means to support providing and API/improper accessing APIs (and ETSI MEC is fully aligned with CAPIF). From a software development point of view,

text: CH-

text: authentication compliance with CAPIF should be ensured during API design and implementation phases. Further, the

text: of MEC vulnerabilities in the service-based interface (SBI) of MEC components can include improper transport layer components protection of data transferred over internal interfaces and improper verification of identity and access control to authorised MEC applications.

text: Insufficient/impr Since MEC is based on virtualised infrastructure, it needs to include real-time security management based oper Monitoring on NFV specifications (see ETSI GS NFV-SEC 013) [38]. Especially when deploying MEC in NFV

text: CH-

text: Mechanisms of environments, MEC should be considered as part of a whole system real-time security monitoring and

text: MEC management strategy. Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components can result from components insufficient logging of security events for MEC App and MEC host.

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text: SDN centralises the network control platforms and enables programmability in communication networks. These two disruptive features, however, create opportunities for cracking and hacking the network. For example, the centralised control will be a favourable choice for DoS attacks and exposing the critical Centralisation of the SDN application programming interfaces (APIs) to unintended software can bring the whole network down [39].

text: CH-

text: V18 control The SDN controller modifies flow rules in the data path, hence the controller traffic can be easily identified. platforms This makes the controller a visible entity in the network rendering it a favourite choice for DoS attacks. The centralisation of network control can also make the controller a bottleneck for the whole network due to saturation attacks as presented in [40],[41].

text: CH- Malicious SDN Since most network functions can be implemented as SDN applications, malicious applications if granted V19 applications access can spread havoc across a network and constrict bandwidth and negatively affect operations.

text: Before 5G networks, mobile networks had dedicated communication channels based on GTP (GPRS tunnelling protocol) and IPsec tunnels. A significant level of expertise is required to attack communication interfaces, such as X2, S1, S6, S7, which are used only in mobile networks. However, SDN-based 5G networks will not have such dedicated interfaces but rather common SDN interfaces. The openness of these Common SDN interfaces will increase the possible set of attackers.

text: CH-

text: V20 interfaces The communication in SDN based 5G mobile networks can be categorised into three communication channels, i.e. data channel, control channel and inter-controller channel [42]. In current SDN system, these channels are protected by using TLS (transport layer security) sessions [43]. However, TLS sessions are highly vulnerable to IP layer attacks [44], SDN scanner attacks [45] and lack strong authentication mechanisms [46].

text: The execution of diverse VNFs over the same NFV infrastructure sharing computing resources (e.g. CPU, memory) and networking (e.g. vSwitches, physical NICs) can create security issues, if VNFs are not properly isolated from other VNFs, from the virtualisation platform, from the host and from the network infrastructure. Security measures enforcing the isolation shall be implemented in a hypervisor hosting multiple VMs or a CIS hosting multiple containers with different security levels, for example, between VNFs supporting lawful interception (LI) with non-critical VNFs.

text: There are various approaches to isolating VNFs, ranging from using physically separate hardware to using separate VMs or containers.

text: There are several security threats if VNFs are not appropriately isolated, and resources are not shared effectively. These include the noisy neighbour problem and potential side-channel attacks.

text: Note: CH- Isolation failure V21 between VNFs • Noisy neighbour is a term commonly used to describe situations in NFV infrastructure where an application experiences degradation in performance due to the fact that some of the resources it needs are occupied by other applications in the same cloud node. These situations cannot be easily identified using straightforward approaches, which calls for the use of sophisticated methods for the management of NFV infrastructure. • Side channel attacks occur when an attacker is capable of gathering actionable information about cryptographic secrets by observing the implementation of a platform (for example, power consumption, run time, etcetera) and use that information to induce faults or modify the cache. Side channel attacks do not necessarily require detailed information on the platform or system being attacked. Many side channel attacks rely on statistical analysis of platform metadata that is typically exchanged (or available) in the clear. NFV platform is susceptible to side channel attacks just like regular (non-virtual) platforms.

text: In a virtual environment while the virtualisation layer plays a role in preventing one VM or container from accessing the memory of another (except through declared VM or container shared memory locations), the virtualisation layer is also able to inspect any memory which is directly under its control. The virtualisation layer access to memory or other VM or container resources cannot be detected by VM or container or 3GPP security mechanisms. Encrypting memory provides some resistance but if the keys used to encrypt the memory are also under hypervisor or CIS control (including hypervisor or CIS resource Memory CH- controlled TPM / HSMs) then this does not prevent introspection. introspection

text: In addition to reading memory, the hypervisor or CIS is also in many cases able to write directly to memory, bypassing normal memory access controls and security within the VM or container. This allows an attacker with access to the hypervisor or CIS to change data within a VNF at run-time or indeed change the operation of the VNF itself.

text: Container based NFV environments are subject to similar memory introspection risks, with the container (or cluster) management engine providing similar functionality to the hypervisor in VM based implementations.

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text: 5G network functions can be grouped into different trust domains which have varying security requirements. For example, trust in functions which contain long-term cryptographic keys might require different levels of trust to functions which only hold session keys or those which do not contain cryptographic values at all. However, this classification is too simplistic. Nearly all 3GPP NFs will contain some sensitive private information for billing purposes or cryptographic material. Applying the same security policies to NFs in different trust domains could lead to reduced security and/or reduced functionality.

text: Trusted Security domains based on grouping whole NFs may not be sufficient. In some scenarios (e.g. LI), sub- CH- functions of NFs (e.g. LI POIs) may need to belong to different trust domains to the rest of the NF domains V23 functionality. segmentation The definition of appropriate segregation and security policies for NFs in different trust domains requires the establishment of trust domains for 3GPP NFs. It is up to 3GPP to define what a sensitive function or subfunction is and how they must be handled to protect privacy or security sensitive data, within a virtualised environment.

text: While 3GPP TS 33.501 provides some consideration for 5G network functions, CSPs are also in the process of virtualising IMS or 3G/4G networks, for which similar consideration has not yet been given.

text: NFV environments run on server hardware (blade). In some use cases, there may be a need for using local storage. The common deployment is to use a SAN. The deployment of SANs within the NFV environments may have various risks, including copying an image or removing the local storage device to gain access and Access to obtain sensitive information.

text: CH-

text: storage V24 A compromised VM or container can launch an attack on the SAN to obtain access to a storage area resources containing critical images and data

text: The availability of the SAN is essential in a virtualised environment and any DoS attacks would affect the entire NFV.

text: In the 5G core network, NF communications are secured using TLS, according to the profiles in TS 33.210. ECDSA and RSA are used to authenticate these communications. Therefore, a VNF must contain private keys to authenticate these exchanges. These keys need to be provisioned to VMs or containers securely on first boot or need to be stored securely on the image in some fashion. Sharing of A decision also needs to be made as to whether two NF instances may share the same key pair, for private keys example if the second instance is to be deployed in case the first fails. between VNFs CH- Certain VNFs will hold sensitive data, which should not be available to other VNFs or which should only be and V25 made available in a specific set of circumstances. For example, the 3GPP TS 33.501 includes the confidentiality of sensitive requirement that long-term keys shall never leave the secure environment of the UDM/ARPF. data To have the same level of confidence in the confidentiality of sensitive data when stored in a VNF as when it is stored on physically separated hardware, it is necessary to consider new threat vectors. For example, the long-term keys in a virtual UDM/ARPF could be stolen by an attacker with root access to the virtualisation layer. Alternatively, cache side-channel attacks might allow the operator of a VNF sharing resources to recover data.

text: One of the advantages of virtualisation is that a network can scale and transform to meet demand. In general, it is likely that the availability of required VNFs is less of a concern than in a physical deployment. However, virtualisation does introduce new availability risks. For example, shared resources might be Availability of monopolised by a neighbouring VM or container (the noisy neighbour problem).

text: CH-

text: network V26 Many VNFs are essential for the 5G core network to function. For example, if a UDM/ARPF is not available functions then a user cannot complete primary authentication. Similarly, if an AMF is not available then a connection cannot be managed. Therefore, it is important that the VNF is guaranteed to be available in the same way as a physical network function would be.

text: Virtualised networks define convenient software onboarding APIs and use central software catalogues to hold the VNF images prior to instantiation. There has been significant resistance in ETSI ISG NFV and open-source communities to mandate full mandatory integrity checking of software images at both the overall package and sub-component (artefact) level. Current implementations offer minimal if any mandatory Software signing and where they do, this is based purely on vendor signatures. Therefore, in theory at least, any image from the same vendor would pass verification checks if loaded into the wrong CSP software CH- catalogue image catalogue.

text: exposure Furthermore, the software catalogues with or without integrity protection provide a standardised description of the VNFs, their resource requirements, their configuration and ultimately the compiled executables that make up the VNF. If an attacker can access the catalogue then they will be able to gain directly a lot of information which can then be used to attack running instances of the VNF. Where those VNFs contain cryptographic functions or sensitive information, this increases the risk further.

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text: Based on current virtualisation standards in ETSI and Open Source, the protection of the confidentiality of whole images or artefacts during run-time, on-boarding, storage, and instantiation is not supported, although for LI purposes this was recommended in ETSI TS NFV-SEC 011.

text: At the integration and deployment stage of the NFV, the major challenges are related to interoperability between different vendors and how to integrate the software components, hardware, and security solutions of multiple vendors into a stable and efficient system, and how to assign SLA agreements between different components. CH- Multi-vendors V28 integration Hardware, the virtualisation layer, VNFs and control solutions for cloud resources may be provided by different vendors, increasing the risk of security holes due to mismatched assumptions and expectations.

text: Security solutions within NFV could be provided by different vendors, which may be complex to manage and monitor, resulting in the operator not using these security solutions.

text: As an NFV stack is multi-tenant in nature, placing and migrating a VNF can be a challenging task for the provider due to the issue of co-residency. It is well known that co-residency may lead to various security issues, such as side-channel attacks, and additionally the tenant may have specific requirements in terms of (the lack of) co-residency. Co-residency may occur in an NFV environment when a VNF is first placed or when an existing VNF is migrated. The tenant requirements may specify that certain VNFs are to be placed on a dedicated host or a VM or container needs to have an auto-scaling feature such that its need for more space can be quickly fulfilled. In terms of security, co-resident VNFs may belong to tenants with conflicting CH- Multi-tenants interests, and the co-residency may enable an insider attack with increased privileges and connectivity not V29 Co-residency available to regular attackers.

text: The co-residency of VNFs on the same VM or container can also occur when different tenants employ the same VM or container to run similar network functions, such as a virtual firewall or virtual IDS.

text: Lack of multi-tenant controls in an operator’s NFV infrastructure or MANO, where multiple tenants are supported, increases the opportunity for the compromise of a VNF and the underlying NFV infrastructure (e.g. supporting network, host OS, hypervisor, CIS, storage, hardware IO, compute and memory).

text: Due to the dispersion of VMs or containers that belong to a VNF across racks and datacentres within the NFVI PoP in the core, MEC and RAN, and due to the migration of VMs or containers for optimisation or maintenance purposes, the physical perimeters of the network functions become blurred and ‘fluid’ making it practically impossible to manually define and manage security zones. If a VM or container is migrated to Elastic nature another cluster where the security level is different or security measures are lacking, the VNFs may be CH- of NFVI- exposed to untrusted network traffic. V30 migration of VNFs 5G involves the active use of mobile edge computing technology (MEC). These can be corporate applications running on service providers’ networks: intelligent services, financial services, multimedia, etc. It should be noted that in this case, a 5G provider’s networks are integrated into the corporate infrastructure. This gives the attacker new opportunities for entering corporate networks, as the MEC equipment is placed outside the protected perimeter of an organisation.

text: Using NFV, the violation of regulatory policies and laws becomes possible by moving one VNF from a legal location to another illegal location. The consequences of violating regulatory policies can be a complete banning of the service and/or the imposition of a financial penalty, which may be the original intention of the attacker in order to harm the service provider.

text: For some VNFs (or subcomponents) it is necessary to know exactly where a VNF is (or at least in which datacentre it resides). CH- Geographical V31 location By default, cloud hosting environments do not by nature provide an attestable guarantee of physical location of a host or VNF. It is possible to indirectly attest location through host IDs but it is also possible to move a host from one location to another. 3GPP functions such as AUC, UDM or LI functions need to be attestable within the boundaries of a specific physical location (ETSI TR NFV-SEC 016 discusses some of these issues).

text: Furthermore, if functions such as SEPP are supposed to be the physical boundary of a network then it may be necessary to be able to constrain them, and the SDN routing to them, to specific physical locations.

text: In virtualised environments, it is necessary to consider where data has been and whether that data is sensitive as regards privacy. If a VNF moves from one host to another or is terminated, and the previous resources are allocated to another VNF without being fully cleared, this risks compromising privacy sensitive data or keys. Data life cycle CH- OSs are not unknown to proliferate temp files, which in a PNF is much easier to contain (ignoring PNFs with and location V32 external storage). In a VNF, if storage or memory is not fully erased before reuse there is a significant risk of data loss between VNFs. By extension, software is not unknown to crash or experience abnormal behaviour, increasing the risk of data remaining in undesirable locations.

text: If a VNF cannot securely attest what host it is running on then high security functions could be deployed on vulnerable hosts.

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text: VNFs are large complex lumps of functionality which span multiple physical hardware hosts in a virtualised implementation. In a virtualised environment, access to the interconnections between servers making up a single VNF can be gained much more easily.

text: While there is a risk of an attacker gaining physical access to the interconnections between servers making up a single PNF, this generally requires physical access to the hardware. In a virtualised environment, CH- VNF host however, access can be gained much more easily as the servers making up a function are more likely to be V33 spanning physically distributed and the SDN v-switch would allow an attacker to fork IP packets flowing much more easily between remote hosts Such forking is very difficult to detect or prevent from within a VNF unless specific mitigation during design is taken to minimise the risk.

text: While TLS automatically applied by the NFV or SDN layer between VMs or containers reduces threats from external attackers, it is much less effective against attackers who have (or have gained) access to NFV MANO, etc.

text: One of the main persistent challenges to the use of NFV in mobile networks is the dynamic nature of VNFs that leads to configuration errors and thus security lapses. Dynamic nature CH- For instance, using NFV, virtual networking components (e.g. virtual routers and virtual networks) can be of network easily created. Quick and dynamic service decisions can result in human error when a virtual router is

text: functions created and used to interconnect virtual networks without the use of any firewall. Compared to physical network appliance deployments, the dynamicity of virtual network appliances and its connectivity can lead to improper separation between the network and its subnets.

text: 3.2.2 Orchestration and management The MANO layer is considered as the brains of all operations for the creation, configuration, provision and monitoring of network services and their related components. In contrast, it can be seen as a single point of failure and an attractive target for attack, as any compromised operations may lead to the failure of an entire system. The main function of MANO is to control the connectivity between VNFs, create the relationships between VNFs and virtual infrastructure resources, maintain a sequence of network forwarding paths, and address all the service chaining processes. However, a lack of consistency on how to manage and orchestrate the network services can incur security challenges. Table 9 illustrates the main security challenges raised by the orchestration and management of the 5G NFV. Table 9: Main security challenges facing 'orchestration and management’ ID Challenge title Challenge description

text: MANO is the control node of an NFV. It controls all VNFs and indirectly (via the virtualisation layer) it can access all data within those VNFs. Compromising MANO would effectively compromise all VNFs.

text: MANO are responsible for on-boarding, instantiation, termination and lifecycle management of all VNF within a virtualised network. Combined with 3GPP layer OSS/BSS functions they control all VNFs and indirectly (via the virtualisation layer) can access all data within those VNFs, unless specially protected. Compromising MANO would effectively compromise all VNFs (to a much lesser extent the same applies to the OSS/BSS). Therefore, for VNFs to be secure, NFs need to have minimum security guarantees from MANO and be designed to be resistant to compromise of the underlying MANO system. CH- MANO single point of OM1 failure Communications with and within NFV MANO: attackers may try to eavesdrop or modify the traffic that transits between the NFVI and the NFV MANO, as well as traffic within the NFV MANO.

text: NFVO and/or VNFM: attackers may attempt to exploit these two components to disrupt the lifecycle management of the network services (purpose of the orchestrator) or of individual VNFs (main role of the VNFM).

text: In case of a DoS attack or a failure, the NFVO may be reliant on other elements (e.g. SDN controller or VIM) under its configuration control to enable them to boot, reallocate resources and reload their configuration. There is a risk that, should a major event occur, parts of the NFV infrastructure may remain out of service causing major service issues.

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text: In addition, any change, termination, or re-instantiation of security critical NFV elements, by the NFVO and VNFM, where the critical data is overwritten, may compromise the integrity of the network; for example, deletion of customer specific profiles, LEA target information or AuC keys. The VIM is responsible for the management of the NFVI resources used by the VNFs (compute, network and storage) and attacking it could, for example, allow denial of service (DoS) or data theft, bypassing the isolation of the hypervisor or CIS.

text: There are risks that:

text: CH-

text: compromise and policy • an existing virtualised element (e.g. VNF, SDN Controller) managed by the NFVO may be

text: violations removed while there is still an existing operational service dependency from another network element or system, causing a service outage and loss of availability.

text: If the NFVO user interface allows for the editing, importing or generation of such provisioning or instantiation of script files (yml or other) that are used to manage VNFs (e.g. initiation and termination, description of internal and external connectivity, dependencies between VNFCs), several attack vectors may be exploited by an attacker.

text: Resource integrity There could be a loss of integrity on the orchestration resource inventory with the SDN controllers, caused by manual VNFM service configuration caused by direct manual configuration at the SDN/NFV layer.

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text: changes or failure to OM3 During the service management processes, commands may be correctly initiated from the NFVO to update resource the SDN controller and/or VIM, VNFM; however, the success or failure of these commands may not inventory be reflected in the service and resource inventories which could cause issues for data integrity.

text: The protocols used by the NFVO to communicate with the components needed to manage the virtualised environment may be vulnerable and attacks could be realised in several ways:

text: • Spoofing of the NFVO’s service requests may result in an attacker being able to generate service requests to cause a DoS by: o provisioning new instances in order to delete the number of resources available to the NFV or SDN components; o retiring NFV instances or SDN elements that are in use by the operational network; CH- Vulnerabilities within o changing the SDN configuration. OM4 orchestration protocols This risk could impact a single element or the whole mobile network.

text: • Spoofing as an SDN controller, VIM or VNFM to send service management requests to the NFVO on the resource performance could cause the NFVO to initiate changes on the infrastructure. This exploit could be used by an attacker who wants to force the NFVO to move a NFV component to another datacentre where the attacker may have physical access or has compromised the virtualisation layer and wants to monitor customer traffic.

text: 3.2.3 Administration and access control Much of the openness and programmability offered by the 5G NFV network architecture relies on the expanded use of APIs. The exploitation can target different types of API namely internal network functions, internetworking interfaces, roaming interfaces, etc. exposed in different layers of the network. A poorly designed or configured API with inaccurate access control rules may expose network functions and sensitive parameters. Table 10 illustrates the main security challenges raised by the administration of and access control to the 5G NFV. Table 10: Main security challenges facing ‘administration and access control’ 46 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 ID Challenge title Challenge description

text: Whoever commits a malicious action is not necessarily an outsider to the virtualised system. Accidentally or intentionally, even an insider, such as a system administrator (e.g. hypervisor or CIS administrator), could behave incorrectly.

text: Administration roles can be used to manage the NFV environment. This environment can be used by CH-AC1 Malicious insiders the hypervisor or CIS administrator to eavesdrop or modify sensitive data running on a VM or container or transferring between NFV components.

text: Moreover, this administrator may be able to change or stop processes running in the VM or container, give other applications access to the VM or container or steal critical security data.

text: NFV deployments usually rely on a single administration domain, with a global administrator who is able to manage the hosts and NFV environment. As such, at some level, all VNFs regardless of their Single administrator CH-AC2 sensitivity are potentially reduced to the same security level of the single administration domain. domain Therefore, if an attacker is able to gain global administrator privileges, they will be able to control and manage all network functions, regardless of their sensitivity and trust domain.

text: The virtualisation of network functions introduces a new risk because virtualisation is still a Lack of staff with comparatively new architecture and carriers may still be unfamiliar with the risks inherent in networks the skillsets needed CH-AC3 that are more defined by software than hardware. A lack of staff with the skillsets needed to operate to operate virtualised networks may represent the greatest threat in telecommunication networks utilising this virtualised networks new architecture.

text: The interconnectivity among the virtualised end‐to‐end architectural components exposes new interfaces that, unless protected, can create new security threats. Through management interfaces users can access and interact with services offered by NFV. A management interface is easily hackable if it is not adequately protected because it is exposed to any external entity, which could Insecure abuse the privileges granted to it. management, CH-AC4 configuration, and APIs play an integral part during provisioning, management, orchestration and monitoring of the monitoring services running in the NFV framework, which makes them a perfect target for attackers. API abuse is interfaces the most-frequent attack vector. An attacker may try to exploit insecure APIs in order to access or tamper with NFV’s services and/or databases. APIs-based attacks can lead to data loss or leakage, identity theft, system compromise, as well as service unavailability. Potential API-based attacks against NFV framework include parameter attacks, identity attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks and (distributed) denial of service attacks.

text: One of the core features of NFV is management and orchestration which is, in essence, the ability to dynamically scale network capacity up or down and continuously adapt to shifting requirements. This may be realised through automated provisioning of network elements and or services. The provisioning framework itself provides several attack vectors that may be exploited by an attacker. Compromise of These two features are highly centralised, which means the safe and stable operation of the entire CH-AC5 orchestration system will be jeopardised if the functions fail or are illegally controlled. access control A poor authentication mechanism, weak access control and feeble authorisation rules may allow the attacker to impersonate or appear as a legitimate authenticated and authorised user. The attacker could then compromise the network and the NFV elements to influence their performance, behaviour and services.

text: Attackers may be able to connect to VIM and break the administration password allowing them access into VIM management features, which would allow them to modify the existing configuration causing a DoS attack or to install unauthorised applications to facilitate fraud or eavesdropping. Weak or insecure authentication or VIM may accept all commands sent from the NFVO. Received Commands may cause changes to the

text: access control virtual environment that have a major service impact or cause a DoS. authorisation to VIM Poor segregation between vendors within a VIM may allow a vendor access to the NFV configuration of other vendors. The unauthorised access could cause knowingly or accidentally a DoS attack on a competitor’s NFV by removing their VM or container resources.

text: 3.2.4 New and legacy technologies In the current NFV deployment, operators are incorporating NFV components into legacy devices. In this hybrid architecture, the complete network management system is be divided into two parts. The first part is a sub-system managing VNFs. The second part is the legacy OSS. In order to avoid having to reconstruct the existing sub-system, the legacy OSS will stay unchanged and will continue to manage existing PNFs. An interface between legacy OSS and the virtualised environment is not precluded and could be a proprietary interface, based on the operators’ requirements. 47 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Given that legacy or physical network function or devices will continue to be used for the foreseeable future, operators will have to manage hybrid (part physical, part virtualised) networks. Hence, existing OSS will need to be extended (in some way) to work together with the new management and orchestration systems that support NFV. There are also security challenges that should be considered for LI. The security challenges raised by these hybrid physical and virtual network environments should be considered when deploying the 5G telco management and orchestration architecture. Table 11 illustrates the main security challenges raised by the mix of new and legacy technologies within a 5G NFV. Table 11: Main security challenges facing ‘new and legacy technologies’ ID Challenge title Challenge description

text: Most virtualised deployments will commence with adding VNFs to an existing PNF based network. Over time the number of VNFs will increase but mixed network deployments will be the default for the next 10+ years. Similarly, mixed SDN and non-SDN linked NFs will also co-exist. By default, PNFs and VNFs have to be able to implicitly trust each other in mixed deployments, given that 3GPP SA3 currently does not specify different handling or trust relationships based on PNF or VNF implementation.

text: In mixed deployments, especially where older 3G CS NFs share common NFs (e.g. virtualised HSS, UDM) with 4G or 5G higher security level VNFs, additional 3GPP security mechanisms may be required to prevent Mixed virtual CH- attackers using insecure interfaces as the injection points against the otherwise secure VNFs (i.e. VNF and legacy PNF LG1 implicitly accepts messages from legacy PNF with lower security). However, the reverse attack also exists deployments where an attacker uses the much larger attack surface offered by VNFs to attack PNFs. VNFs would ignore the messages but may well forward them to the less secure PNFs.

text: Attacks are also possible depending on the chain of VNF and PNFs, where an attacker injects messages towards a VNF, which is forwarded to a PNF and finally to another VNF. While the first VNF and PNF are unharmed by the attack, the second VNF falls foul of the implicit trust of PNF and VNF communications. It is possible to conceive other similar chained attack scenarios where PNFs and VNFs exist together without knowledge of each other’s implementation or trust domain segregation.

text: X86 and similar server architectures have a number of physical security weaknesses from the perspective of a critical national infrastructure. Plug and play interfaces (e.g. USB and removal RAID discs) unless disabled or tightly controlled represent a risk to 3GPP NF security. However, more difficult to control attack vectors such as PCI Express bus direct memory access (DMA) or use of OS swap or page files represent risks if physical access to the server(s) hosting a 3GPP NF becomes possible. Similarly, most server firmware would detect hardware changes (e.g. adding an extra copy of a physical network port which is visible to the host firmware), but if the replacement hardware uses the same IDs and declared interfaces, this is much more difficult to detect.

text: In legacy PNF implementations, such risks are better understood with physical constraints including secured racks, physical testing of interfaces to confirm they are disabled and careful placement of more sensitive functions (e.g. AUC) within CSP datacentres. However, for virtualised implements using large pools of CH- Vulnerabilities of common hosts, physically securing all hosts (rather than those dedicated to a specific function) so that any LG2 physical hosts 3GPP function can run on any host, while controlling physical access attacks is difficult to achieve. This threat potentially increases with IAAS and NAAS deployments.

text: Furthermore, many datacentre hosts are equipped with baseband management controllers and intelligent management interface protocol. If an attacker is able to access these controllers, they effectively have direct control over all hosts and all VNFs running on them. Over recent years a number of such vulnerabilities have occurred. For sensitive functions such as the AUC or LI functions, the risks would obviously be increased.

text: Almost all virtualised environments (e.g. NFV servers) rely on x86/64 architecture and common off-the-shelf server hardware. Microprocessor side-channel security vulnerabilities such as CVE-2017-5753, CVE-2017-5715, CVE-2017-5754 (aka Spectre and Meltdown) can make NFV infrastructure a very valuable asset for attackers. These vulnerabilities may lead to information disclosure and elevation of privilege. Mitigation and resolution of these vulnerabilities are difficult and may call for both software (OS) and hardware (microcode) updates.

text: Today’s OSS/BSS architectures are built on a solid but aging foundation, developed over several decades, for telecom services that were relatively static and predictable. OSS/BSS systems are undergoing significant Transformation changes in order to benefit from, and keep up with, the pace of innovation ushered in by SDN and NFV.

text: CH-

text: of legacy Operators seeking to take advantage of SDN and NFV to optimise their networks and improve agility can only

text: OSS/BSS do so when a new generation of OSS/BSS processes is enhanced to cope with this new virtualised and cloudbased world. Migration will take time, as operators must adapt and upgrade complex and proprietary legacy systems46.

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text: Most core legacy systems cannot support end-to-end functionality. It’s difficult for operators to deliver and charge for low latency and high reliability, as well as assure it and provide an appropriate SLA because the required billing integration may not be in place. Instead, they continue to use standalone solutions because of the integration costs involved .

text: The NFV infrastructure must dynamically reallocate its resources between different virtual network functions to Integration with meet variations in traffic composition. Current OSS/BSS systems cannot support this level of real-time CH- 48 existing legacy dynamics and policy driven real-time service variation .

text: OSS/BSS SDN and NFV are poised to reduce the cost of capacity and in turn improve service density. The knock-on effect will be an increase in service management overhead, which will create a greater workload for OSS/BSS. OSS and BSS systems will need to adapt to avoid becoming a bottleneck. For instance, billing systems will need to support more billing events as service instances grow significantly. The traffic of multiple customers traffic must be aggregated efficiently, with unique subscriber profiles, many application types and distinct policies .

text: 3.2.5 Adoption of open source or COTS Use of open source within 5G NFV will continue to increase as vendors rely on open source software to speed the delivery of new solutions. Open source software can be viewed as being analogous to corporations outsourcing functions not related to their core competencies. This introduces a new set of security challenges in terms of keeping a consistent and coherent assurance of security-by-design, and the prevention of resulting security flaws. To compound this issue, asking vendors to disclose the open source components used in their products may disclose more vulnerabilities and add to the risk. Another security challenge is that NFs based on NFV technologies can now run on lower cost, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware, eliminating the need for more expensive, purposebuilt hardware. When using COTS for the NFVI, security and performance may be impacted, and security measures must be implemented to reduce the related risks. Table 12 illustrates the main security challenges raised by the adoption of open source or COTS within the 5G NFV. Table 12: Main security challenges facing ‘adoption of open source or COTS’ ID Challenge title Challenge description

text: Many 5G vendors and operators rely on open-source software to accelerate delivery of digital innovation. Both traditional and agile development processes frequently incorporate the use of prebuilt, reusable opensource software components. As a result, some organisations may not have accurate inventories of opensource software dependencies used by their different applications, or a process to receive and manage notifications concerning discovered vulnerabilities or available patches from the community supporting the open-source.

text: Open-source software provides attackers with a target-rich environment because of its widespread use (e.g. Adoption of open 50 51 CH- GitHub security breaches ). Open-source software is incorporated into applications in many ways, and source software often 5G operators or vendors will not know where open-source is used. When open-source is used as the

text: foundation for a vendor’s product, any vulnerabilities could threaten the integrity of the vendor’s solution. Asking vendors to disclose the open-source components used in their products may disclose more vulnerabilities and add to the risk.

text: In 2020 we saw the Boot Hole vulnerability for GRUB2 bootloader (CVE-2020-10713), seven other GRUB2 vulnerabilities, and the critical HAProxy vulnerability with malformed HTTP/2 requests (CVE-2020-11100). Since June 2017, the Linux kernel has had 12 CVEs with a CVSS score of 10.0 (critical). Prevasio’s recently completed Operation Red Kangaroo scanned the entire Docker Hub and found 51 percent of all containers had ‘critical’ vulnerabilities. As new open-source software vulnerabilities continue to be introduced into

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text: development projects, it has become clear that software vendors and operators need to implement secure software development best practices and cannot rely exclusively upon the open-source community to build secure software .

text: Generally, hardware design and manufacturing occur prior to software development, so it is extremely important to address hardware security in product lifecycles, because once attackers compromise hardware modules, software security mechanisms running on these devices will be compromised as well. For example, manufacturing backdoors eavesdropping, inducing faults, and hardware modification tampering through jailbroken software. CH- Adoption of Almost all virtualised environments rely on x86/64 architecture and common off-the-shelf (COTS) server OC2 COTS hardware hardware. This makes telecom virtual appliances (NFV firmware) a very valuable asset for security researchers and attackers alike.

text: An attacker with physical access to the hardware resources may be able to tamper with or remove the TPM, disabling the trusted computing platform function and facilitating other attacks; for example, allowing an untrusted host OS, hypervisor or CIS to be installed.

text: 3.2.6 Supply chain The 5G NFV supply chain is similarly susceptible to the introduction of risks such as malicious software and hardware, counterfeit components, poor designs, manufacturing processes, and maintenance procedures. The exposure to these risks is heightened by the broad appeal of 5G technologies and the resulting rush to deployment. This may result in negative consequences, such as data and intellectual property theft, loss of confidence in the integrity of the 5G network, or exploitation to cause system and network failure. Table 13 illustrates the main security challenges facing the supply chain of the 5G NFV. Table 13: Main security challenges facing ‘the supply chain’ ID Challenge title Challenge description

text: A significant risk is formed if the separation between test and production environment is neglected. The Separation of test CH- reason is that the security configurations of the two different environments may vary. In addition, the test and production SC1 configurations are updated more frequently. Moreover, the test environment is also more likely to support environments remote vendor access.

text: Carriers and equipment vendors may use components within the NFV manufactured by untrusted companies, likely, in part, because of their relatively low costs or the components may already exist as part

text: CH-

text: Untrusted partners of the current LTE infrastructure. The use of components manufactured by untrusted companies could

text: expose entities to risks introduced by malicious software and hardware, counterfeit components, and component flaws caused by poor manufacturing processes and maintenance procedures.

text: When updates are available, they are likely to be retrieved from a centralised server and then applied by a Infected/untested/ script or automated update process. If such a server or the applied script has been compromised, spoofed or unauthorized subject to some type of malfunction there is a risk that updates have been compromised or damaged.

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text: SC3 patches or Deploying untested or unvalidated NFV components on the NFV network poses a significant risk. This risk upgrades may result in anything ranging from minor inconveniences such as missing functionality to more dangerous issues such as signalling loops or, in the worst case, complete network failure.

text: In legacy hardware deployments, 3GPP, GSMA or other testing schemes generally involve testing 3GPP functions as opaque boxes or pentesting them in isolation from other network functions. While it is possible to test virtual functions in this way, the level of assurance gained is different. Such stand-alone testing relies on the underlying virtualisation and hardware layers being 100% secure and that no future vulnerabilities are found in those underlying components. CH- Test isolation and Testing functions in isolation does not guarantee that when a VNF is instantiated on a different host SC4 assurance virtualisation environment or is instantiated in a larger virtualisation environment containing multiple VNFs that a 3GPP function tested in isolation remains secure.

text: Isolation in testing refers to VNF to VNF isolation as well as platform to VNF isolation. In general, it means that the VNF is firstly tested on its own in a dedicated NFVI and then tested with other VNFs in a shared NFVI.

text: Counterfeit NFV components are more susceptible to cyber-attack and are more likely to break because of CH- Use of counterfeit their poor quality. Compromised counterfeit components could enable a malicious actor to impact the SC5 components confidentiality, integrity or availability of data that travels through NFV and to move laterally to other more sensitive parts of the 5G network. Counterfeit components are inserted at the component manufacturing or

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text: distribution stage in the supply chain in order to impact components delivered to a subset (potentially a targeted subset) of downstream customers. Counterfeit parts look like regular parts and are a form of fraud.

text: Scenario: a malicious actor identifies a government contractor that provides NFV components and attempts to sell modified or counterfeit products to them at discounted prices. While the contractor is legitimate and has the most to lose from counterfeit products, they are unaware that there is a potential problem and do not conduct an initial analysis of possible counterfeiting risks that exist within its industry. To save money, the contractor purchases the counterfeit components from the malicious actor and inserts them into their product. The counterfeit part has gone undetected in usability and functional testing and is placed into production. The resulting effect on the overall 5G system can take a variety of forms, such as impacting system performance, the availability of critical services, or loss of data.

text: Inherited NFV components may come from extended supply chains consisting of third-party suppliers, vendors, and service providers. Supply chains may be compromised via attacks on suppliers, including suppliers of suppliers, who may have weaker security controls and audits on their development, production, or delivery channels. Flaws or malicious code inserted early in the development phases are more difficult to detect and could lead to the developer marking the component as legitimate through digital signatures or other approvals. Malicious actors could then later exploit these vulnerabilities.

text: The malicious code may be introduced to the component in several different ways, such as via compromise of the source code repository, theft of signing keys, or penetration of distribution sites and channels. As a part of an authorised and normal distribution channel, operators unknowingly acquire and deploy these CH- Use of inherited compromised components on their 5G systems and networks. Advanced malicious code typically does not SC6 components disrupt normal operations and may not activate for several days or weeks, thereby remaining hidden from typical application and software testing practices.

text: Scenario: a telecommunications company buys core network systems management software from a trusted provider. However, unbeknownst to the trusted provider, one of the components it uses in the product has been compromised and now contains malicious code. This is a threat that results from inheriting risk decisions made by a supplier within the supply chain. The deeper into the supply chain it occurs, the more difficult it is to identify in advance. This inserted vulnerability may be used by the malicious actor as a part of a larger attack chain that uses the malicious code to gain access within the core network of the telecom and then pivot towards other attack vectors.

text: 3.2.7 Lawful interception (LI) Securing and hiding LI functionality from other functions in an NFV environment is by far the largest security challenge. Placing LI functions within the VNF environment exposes them to a variety of security and visibility risks. Placing them outside of the NFV environment comes with a different set of visibility risks, places significant constraints on VNF mobility, makes LI fragile to dynamic changes in the NFV environment and will only be possible in scenarios where the mandatory intra-VNF and inter-VNF encryption has been disabled. Disabling intra or inter VNF encryption will expose the NFV platform to considerable cyber risks and is therefore unlikely to be acceptable. Specific consideration of LI security challenges in hybrid part legacy scenarios must be considered. In real deployments, legacy nodes and VNF need to co-exist and be interconnected with implicit trust. This implicit trust is required as VNFs are not supposed to know they have been virtualised. This therefore means that the VNFs are connected to management and service control plane links which include legacy nodes that do not implement the same level of security as the VNF. Table 14 illustrates the main security challenges for Lawful Interception (LI). Table 14: Main security challenges facing ‘lawful interception (LI)’ ID Challenge title Challenge description

text: 5G offers very high security standards. Although end-to-end encryption is not yet set out as mandatory in the 5G standards, it cannot be ruled out that it will be included in the standardisation process. End-to-end encryption would make it impossible to access content in electronic communications, even through lawful CH- Encryption of 53 interception. In addition, encryption of an IMSI number (it is the individual number of the mobile phone card) LI1 communications would make it impossible for law enforcement and judicial authorities to identify the mobile devices or location of criminals or persons who pose a serious threat, as well as potential victims or persons facing a threat. Without access to the IMSI number, certain lawful interceptions are not possible. Therefore, metadata normally available via interception (such as location, date, time, call duration, calling and contacted party)

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text: would be lost to law enforcement and judicial authorities. In addition, 5G will have strict authentication processes (in order to identify a user before access is granted) such as false-base detection that will make it harder for law enforcement to investigate via lawful interception without being detected. (IMSI catchers which are necessary for interception of mobile devices and location of suspects or victims would be detected.)

text: Up to now, when carrying out a lawful interception, the authorities deal with a limited number of network providers. With 5G network slicing technology , network and service providers may not – unless they are obliged to do so – have a complete copy of the information available, which would make lawful interception impossible. Cooperation of 5G architecture means that in order to monitor communications, one could require the cooperation of

text: CH-

text: numerous numerous network providers both at home and abroad, under different jurisdictions. While law enforcement

text: network providers authorities currently make requests to a single network provider operating from national territory, in the future with 5G, they may have to deal with multiple service and network providers, including from abroad. The crossborder dimension of 5G technology may increase the need for international cooperation, which may increase the time between request and implementation of the interception, with a non-negligible risk of losing a complete copy of the technical information.

text: In order to improve timely response, MEC will allow mobile phone networks to store and process contents in decentralised clouds in the vicinity of network users which can directly communicate with each other. Information will not necessarily be directed via central nodes, where lawful interception is currently Availability of CH- implemented. Therefore, data may not always be available anymore. As network functions and components data at the LI LI3 which used to exist physically become virtual or may be moved abroad, existing measures to ensure central nodes confidentiality of interception (protection against access to or even altering target lists by having specifically vetted staff to carry out the measures on the national territory and physical protection measures such as access restrictions) will no longer work.

text: In real deployments, LI legacy nodes and NFV need to co-exist and be interconnected with implicit trust. This therefore means that the NFV are connected to management and service control plane links which include LI legacy nodes that do not implement the same level of security as the NFV. CH- LI in hybrid There are two logical attack models which should be considered for LI: LI4 deployment • Virtualised node compromise using a legacy LI node; • Legacy node compromise using the VNFs or host OS, hypervisor or CIS or associated signalling within the NFV domain.

text: 3.3 NFV VULNERABILITIES Based on and inspired by the ENISA 5G threat landscape , the list of potential vulnerabilities related to the 5G NFV challenges are classified into the following categories. In addition to virtualisation vulnerabilities, the potential vulnerabilities due to legacy systems are considered in this analysis. • service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components; • improper protection of data and information of NFV components; • improper hardening of NFV components; • virtualisation layer vulnerabilities; • vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of NFV components; • insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of NFV; • vulnerabilities due to legacy OSS/BSS systems; • improper protection of service based interfaces; • vulnerabilities of 5G NFs; • vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs; • improper hardening of 5G core components; • vulnerabilities of SDN; • vulnerabilities of MEC; 52 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Annex C provides a description of the different 5G NFV vulnerabilities with their associated assets belonging to the above categories that can be exploited to perform attacks impacting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of the 5G NFV system. 3.4 NFV ATTACK SCENARIOS Attacks are defined by the ways an attacker can compromise system vulnerabilities or weaknesses, impacting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a NFV system. There are many variants of attacks on 5G NFV and they can be organised according to the following two factors (the attack taxonomy is provided and detailed in Annex D): 1. Attack sources belong to three categories:  attacks from within a NFV (internal weakness),  attacks from outside a NFV (external threat),  attacks occurring between NFV components (migration of an attack). 2. Impact is organised into three categories:  Denial of Service: attacks that cause service outages. Examples include hardware vandalism, radio signal jamming, and traffic flooding.  Access Breach: attacks that lead to unauthorised system access, manipulation, or a data breach. Examples include malicious changes to system configurations, exploiting software vulnerabilities, communications hijacking and disclosure of sensitive data.  Integrity Compromise: attacks that impact the integrity of infrastructure through hardware, software, communications or operational tampering. Examples include implanting malicious hardware components in system devices, altering operating system code, modifying data, and circumventing organisational security policies. Figure 15 shows the three attack sources categories with their associated attacks and Table 15 shows the impact of each attack. Figure 15: Attack taxonomy 53 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Table 15: Impact of attacks ID Categories Attacks Impacts

text: ATT1 Human-instigated attacks Access breach Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT2 Software flaw attacks compromise Attacks from within an NFV Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT3 Resource misuse attacks compromise ATT4 Security standard subversion attacks Access breach, integrity compromise ATT5 LI attacks Access breach, integrity compromise ATT6 DDoS attacks Denial of service ATT7 DNS Amplification attacks Denial of service Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT8 Injection attacks Attacks from outside an NFV compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT9 OSS/BSS attacks compromise ATT10 LI attacks Access breach, integrity compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT11 Malicious VM or container attacks compromise ATT12 Malicious hypervisor or CIS attacks Access breach, integrity compromise Access breach ATT13 Command/control channel attacks

text: ATT14 Hardware attacks Access breach, Integrity compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT15 Network attacks compromise Attacks occurring between ATT16 Time manipulation attacks Denial of service, integrity compromise NFV components ATT17 LI attacks Access breach, integrity compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT18 Orchestration attacks compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT19 Supply chain attacks compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT20 Third party hosting attacks compromise Access breach, denial of service, integrity ATT21 Mixed deployment attacks compromise

text: 54 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 4. 5G NFV SECURITY BEST PRACTICES

text: 4.1 CATEGORISATION OF SECURITY MEASURES The development of security measures and best practices is one of the major objectives of this study in order to help mitigate the challenges identified, thus improving 5G NFV security. A list of security measures and best practices has been established by analysing relevant documents and standards identified during desktop research. This analysis allowed the identification of frequently mentioned topics regarding NFV security and their classifications into different security domains. The resulting list is grouped into three main categories, namely policies, organisational and technical practices (see Figure 16). The full register of best practices with references are provided in Annex E. The mapping between categories of challenges, vulnerabilities, attacks, affected assets and best practices is provided in section 4.4. 55 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Figure 16: List of best practices 56 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 4.1.1 Technical In this section, we shed light on technical best security practices that should be followed in order to achieve better security protection in a 5G NFV environment against the challenges identified above. Table 16 highlights thirty-five technical measures and best practices. They are detailed in Annex E. Table 16: Technical best practices ID Best Practice title Best Practice description

text: This covers the use of virtual network security appliances such as anti-virus, virtual firewalls or virtual Security monitoring IDS/IPS to achieve a level of security comparable to traditional networks. Further, machine learning

text: and filtering (ML) assisted solutions can be used to detect attack traffic (e.g. DoS attacks) and distinguish it from normal traffic, so that it can be handled appropriately.

text: VNF image A mechanism should be provided to verify all VNF before they are installed on the orchestration BP-T2 validation and platform or other vendor specific deployment platform. protection

text: The orchestration and VNF management systems should have the ability to keep track of multiple Tracking VNF versions, multiple environments, multiple instances and allow the service provider’s team to perform

text: New VNF components must only be deployed into a production network where security policies have BP-T4 VNF deployment been tested and applied, and where appropriate hardening measures have been taken to ensure that unused ports, unrequired services, and insecure protocols have been disabled.

text: The orchestration platform should manage VNF deletion or relocation in a secure way. Security VNF deletion or BP-T5 mechanisms such us secure backup, storage, destruction, and isolation of sensitive data must be relocation applied.

text: Well-known, standardised and secure cryptographic schemes and protocols (e.g. NIST56, ANSSI57, BP-T6 Cryptography BSI58) shall be used for the cryptographic operations and the key management process. Proprietary schemes and protocols must be avoided.

text: The hypervisor shall enforce the network security policies regarding the isolation between VNFs, memory access control, protection of sensitive data, etc. The hypervisor enables virtualisation between underlying hardware and VMs. Security of the hypervisor is a must in order to protect the whole virtualisation infrastructure.

text: One of the best security practices is to keep the hypervisor up to date by regularly applying security BP-T7 Hypervisor protection patches as they are released. Failure to do so would result in exposure to security risks. Another best practice is to disable all services that are not in use. For example, remote access services may not be needed all the time and therefore it would be a good idea to enable these services only when they are required. Administrators are the gatekeepers of the whole infrastructure and their accounts are the keys. It should be mandated that admin accounts should be secured through the application of a strong password policy along with strict adherence to an organisation’s security guidelines.

text: Security NFV management and orchestration operations must be made secure, especially the lifecycle BP-T8 management and management of VNF workloads. orchestration

text: Today's deployed NFV systems face a huge number of threats that have the capability to compromise them partly or fully. In many cases this involves an attacker modifying a system in such a way that malicious software is executed. Execution of code that was not intended to be executed on the system BP-T9 Remote attestation is expected to be detectable. One defensive measure that addresses the execution of malicious software is remote attestation (RA) as described in ETSI GR NFV-SEC 01859. The remote attestation technique should be used to remotely verify the trust status of a NFV platform.

text: Software compliance Mechanisms for checking integrity must be used to verify software, firmware, and information integrity BP-T10 and integrity within the NFV. preservation

text: 57 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 ID Best Practice title Best Practice description

text: The security zoning concept (or segmentation) should be used to divide 5G networks horizontally and Security vertically into portions in which different security controls can be applied. Security zoning enables the segmentation and application-specific customisation of security services. A zone could, for instance, provide its own AAA

text: isolation between (Authentication, Authorisation, Accountability) and security monitoring functionalities. Consequently, network functions different segments have different security or trust levels, i.e. can be trusted to address different security risks.

text: The NFV platform shall support a secure boot from hardware to VNFs to prevent tampering during the BP-T12 Secure boot integrity system boot and integrity check on the sensitive NFV software files and running code to prevent tampering at runtime, enhancing the protection of system integrity.

text: To prevent disclosure of user data (e.g. subscriber identifiers), 5G networks should use security mechanisms such as the encryption cryptographic operation. It is important to pay attention to the 60. requirements of lawful interception Privacy and security, both of individuals’ personal data and of critical infrastructure, are important preconditions for GDPR. Encryption is a crucial tool to achieve Data protection and BP-T13 these goals. Any approach to weaken or grant backdoor access to encryption methods defeats the privacy entire purpose of encryption and undermines users’ trust, exposing 5G systems to increased risks. At the same time, it remains vitally important that companies and law enforcement authorities continue to work together, ensuring that authorities have the best methods and access to electronic evidence without weakening or putting strong encryption at risk.

text: Encrypting VNF Virtual volume disks associated with VNFs may contain sensitive data. Therefore, they need to be

text: volume/swap areas protected.

text: NFV requires trusted computing technologies for ensuring secure root of trust, remote attestation , Trusted computing integrity monitoring, and secure storage. Such trusted computing technologies include Intel TXT,

text: technologies SGX, AMD SEV or ARM Trustzone silicon-based security functionality implemented with a TPM that stores measurements of the entire hypervisor stack and boot process.

text: Dedicated hardware should be used to ensure strong isolation (e.g. physical separation) between BP-T16 Hardware security tenants. In addition, hardware security devices should be used to ensure a secure boot, integrity check, secure storage and trusted execution environment.

text: Centralised log All the NFV, SDN and MANO elements should submit information on security events to a centralised

text: auditing platform, which shall monitor and analyse the logs in real time for possible attempts at intrusion.

text: Use and ownership NFV components should be configured to support multiple administration roles. As a minimum there of ‘root’ BP-T18 shall be an admin role (highest privilege) and a separate operational role with minimal privileges to administration complete normal operational support. credentials

text: BP-T19 VNF protection VNF data protection shall be enforced at rest and in transit.

text: Local or removal If local, non-volatile, fixed or removable storage is used to support a VNF then it should not store BP-T20 blade storage – SAN sensitive data. SAN should be protected by a mutual authentication process, hard zoning, data protection protection at rest and in transit, etc.

text: • All internal interfaces between VNF elements, supporting MANO platforms and IT elements (mediation, provisioning) that are not required to communicate publicly outside the operators network, should use private IP addresses. • Each VM or container supporting VNFs should have a predefined network security profile. • Separate physical interfaces should be implemented for traffic segregation. • All connectivity between internal NFV components and the external world should pass through a firewall (or vFirewall). • Communication should be monitored, and security events should be recorded in audit logs. BP-T21 Network security • Rules governing segmentation and zoning security should be followed with the use of firewalls, IDS/IPS or other controls. • VPNs should be created between VNFs and both internal and external non-VNF environments. • Patch management is important to fix vulnerabilities on network security devices (e.g. firewall, VPN, IDS/IPS) to keep them up-to-date and running smoothly. • The management of all operational traffic and interfaces should be protected by integrity mechanisms and encryption. Unprotected sessions should not be accepted.

text: 58 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 ID Best Practice title Best Practice description

text: Communication between SDN elements should support a strong identity framework to uniquely identify all components and users of a SDN system and verify identities with a trusted source. Without a strong identity framework, the ability to build effective authentication, authorisation and accounting implementations will be limited.

text: A strong identity should have the following properties:

text: SDN security • ability to distinguish its owner from other entities within a pre-defined scope, BP-T22 • ability to be generated, updated and revoked, management • prevention of impersonation, preferably through strong cryptographic mechanisms.

text: Analysis of the SDN architecture identifies numerous means for elements inside the system’s trust boundary to compromise the availability of the logically centralised control. Strong authentication based on assured identity and access control mechanisms with various privilege levels should be employed to authorise external parties and authenticate their access to the system, e.g. role-based access control.

text: The common aspects for RESTful NFV MANO APIs have been defined in ETSI GS NFV-SOL 013 . MANO access NFV MANO APIs, applications and their supporting platforms (OS, Database) should have BP-T23 control and comprehensive user access controls and privileged access management. NFV-MANO APIs shall only management allow themselves to be accessed by authorised users. One solution for authorising access is the use of OAuth2.0 with access token as described in ETSI GS NFV-SEC 022 .

text: VIM connectivity to The connectivity between the VIM and the virtualisation layer should support a secure access

text: virtualisation layer protocol.

text: A fast recovery and reinstallation process shall be in place to ensure high availability of the sensitive Recovery and BP-T25 NFV components and resources. The recovery process should be clearly documented, reviewed at reinstallation regular intervals for updates and made available to all the staff concerned.

text: Deploying The VIM should be configured to ensure that VMs or containers of differing trust levels are not BP-T26 VMs/Containers of deployed on the same physical host. differing trust levels

text: The orchestration platform sits over the NFV environment and allows the management and Orchestration deployment of VNFs across the whole NFV environment. Security controls should be implemented to BP-T27 platform Security protect this critical platform such as strong authentication, access control rules, information flow Management controls, audit logs, etc. The orchestration platform should support security monitoring and patch management processes to provide continuous security updates.

text: The system should provide a protected and trusted network time source to the NFV components such BP-T28 Trusted time source 64 as GPS or an atomic clock .

text: Secure 3rd party Sensitive information of VNFs shall be confidentially protected by operators when using a 3rd party BP-T29 hosting environment (e.g. NFVI). environments

text: Redundancy and The NFV platform should support redundancy and backup protection to improve reliability and ensure

text: backup the availability and integrity of 5G NFV data, components, applications, and services.

text: • Appropriate restrictions on container placement and on the use of container caching should be applied. • A security policy that restricts the placement and co-existence of containers belonging to Specific container different trust domains should be defined and implemented. BP-T31 • A security policy which restricts which sub-functions within an NF, which has been security controls implemented using containers, may be cached within the general unencrypted container cache or which requires security protection mechanisms for sensitive containers at rest within the cache to be defined and implemented.

text: There should be a sharing of responsibility between the traditional OSS and the newly deployed SDN controllers and NFV orchestration. The OSS will manage the relatively static configuration parameters BP-T32 OSS/BSS protection and limit overall resources assigned to sub-networks or services. The SDN controller and NFV orchestration platforms will then dynamically manage these network resources to apply policy-based services in real-time to individual traffic flows.

text: 59 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 ID Best Practice title Best Practice description

text: While firewalls at trust boundaries provide some defence against attacks by limiting communication between trusted entities to only permitted IP addresses using only valid protocols on allowed ports, additional security controls are needed on the user plane to effectively mitigate DDoS, botnet attacks, BP-T34 User plane security and malware infections. Network-based security functions such as firewalls, volumetric DDoS protection, antibot net, anti-virus, and web filtering can be deployed on the user plane to provide endto-end protection .

text: MEC is designed to support various use cases such as video analytics, location services, Internet of Things (IoT), augmented reality (AR), optimised distribution of local content, data caching, and more. The MEC system should provide a secure environment for running services for the various actors involved such as user, network operator, third-party application provider, application developer, content provider and platform vendor.

text: MEC security relies on specifications provided by recognised bodies to address specific aspects, especially ETSI ISG NFV for infrastructure virtualisation and management, the Trusted Computing Group (TCG) for physical platform security, and IETF specifications for securing access to MEC services. Furthermore, 3GPP TR 33.848 [47] is investigating the security consequences of BP-T35 MEC security virtualisation of 3GPP NFs. This 3GPP report is applicable to many MEC use cases where the need for additional security controls is higher than in core network datacentre implemented network functions. It is expected to result in additional ETSI NFV security requirements that can be utilised for MEC.

text: Moreover, security assurance is an important topic which is beginning to be required by regulators for 5G infrastructure components such as MEC. While the traditional common criteria technology (ISO 15408) remains a global reference for security assessment, tailored schemes that address the specific constraints of 5G ecosystems, such as GSMA NESAS, are expected to play an important role in this respect.

text: 4.1.2 Policy This second category of security measures encompasses the various policies and procedures to be established to ensure an appropriate level of cybersecurity. The following 16 technical policy measures and best practices have been identified (see Table 17 and a detailed description in Annex E). Table 17: Policy best practices ID Best Practice title Best Practice description

text: 5G NFV deployments should build on mature cybersecurity standards employed in enterprise and cloud environments. Examples include the NIST Cybersecurity Framework and ISO Information 71 72 Security Management System series , the ETSI GS NFV-SEC 003 Security and Trust Guidance and the UK NCSC Zero Trust Architecture Design Principles . BP-P1 Zero Trust Zero Trust represents an overarching access security model that deliberately avoids assuming implicit trust between elements in a network. This is particularly important in 5G as various external stakeholders may need to access infrastructure components or services for management, 74 75 maintenance, or monitoring purposes .

text: 60 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: Security

text: assessment of new New or modified VNF service templates should be validated through proper risk assessment by a BP-P2 or changes to security professional. existing VNF

text: service templates

text: Vulnerability NFV and MANO software components will need to be monitored for vulnerabilities and patched as BP-P3 handling & patch quickly as possible to address evolving risks and ensure security and functionality. management

text: Regular penetration and vulnerability testing should be performed across the NFVi and MANO

text: production environment to identify any vulnerabilities (e.g. OSs, hypervisor, CIS, VMs or containers)

text: Security testing and or compromise of the network zoning rules. 5G stakeholders should also leverage internationally

text: assurance recognised product testing, assurance, and certification regimes. Potential solutions to these

text: requirements include, among others, the Network Equipment Security Assurance Scheme (NESAS) ,

text: Incident An incident detecting and handling process should be established to support incident response and

text: management restoration activities.

text: An update management process is required for introducing a new component or a software or

text: Secure update hardware change into the 5G system. Continuous integration and testing tools make the patching

text: management process efficient and reduce the prolonged risk of exposure. NFV and MANO must support reactive

text: and proactive security monitoring and patch management to provide continuous security updates.

text: Restriction on It should not be possible to install a VNF application into the operational NFV environment without BP-P7 installing validation and approval by the operator. applications

text: Security must be implemented for the hardware, virtualisation, VNF, MANO and application layers. BP-P8 Defence-in-depth Multilayer, defence-in-depth security with protective mechanisms must be present.

text: It should be mandated that all user accounts accessing the NFV/MANO system be secured by the

text: application of a strong password policy. Securing NFV/MANO passwords requires implementing and

text: enforcing a password policy that includes:

text: Strong password • strong passwords for every account

text: policy • the use of a password manager

text: • two-factor authentication (2FA)

text: • role-based access control (RBAC)

text: • privileged access management (PAM) for the most sensitive NFV/MANO components.

text: Secure supply Large elements of the supply chain are outside the direct control of the operator, and thus operators

text: chain should seek to impose obligations onto the supply chain to enhance security of the NFV.

text: Resources An inventory management system must account for all the physical elements, open source and NFV inventory software components that the operator owns on premises and in the cloud. In addition, the resource BP-P11 management inventory database should be protected by security controls. Inventories should be reviewed and system and updated at regular intervals. database

text: Apply hardening NFV, MANO and SDN components should be submitted to a continuous or repetitive hardening

text: policies process to ensure that known vulnerabilities are identified and addressed.

text: Multi-vendor segregation should be applied to ensure each vendor can only manage or impact its own Multi-vendors resources. In addition, trust vendors of NFV components should be selected. A security SLA should BP-P13 segregation and also be established between the operator and vendors to define the security level that they must trust meet.

text: The security-by-design principle is to be followed in order to inspire trust in end users. This

text: requirement highlights the need to consider security aspects from the very beginning of the BP-P14 Security-by-design development of a 5G system, throughout the supply chain, and over the whole lifecycle of 5G

text: components.

text: 61 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: The security posture of a NFV deployment must consider that cloud-based networks are dynamic and that threats are constantly evolving. Lifecycle management (LCM) will become more complex in a NFV environment and will require automated management and orchestration functions . Containers Lifecycle inherently provide software modularity and decomposition, which allow for independent LCM following

text: management DevOps principles and continuous integration and continuous delivery (CI/CD). The NIST secure 80 81 software development framework (SSDF) and DevSecOps project for cloud-native applications integrate security into the DevOps process, reducing vulnerabilities, mitigating the potential impacts of vulnerabilities, and preventing the recurrence of vulnerabilities.

text: Vendors of 5G NFV software components should include a SBOM with the software package. The Software bill Of BP-P16 generated SBOM should follow the NTIA guidelines and be in a machine-readable format such as materials (SBOM) 82 83 SPDX , or CycloneDX .

text: 4.1.3 Organisational Organisational best practices are of the utmost importance to ensure 5G NFV security. In what follows, four organisational rules and best practices are introduced in Table 18 and detailed in Annex E. Table 18: Organisational best practices ID Best Practice title Best Practice description

text: Secure physical Security is not just about encrypting data streams but also about the physical deployment of equipment. environment and BP-O1 NFV devices and equipment location, type of equipment, and type of services running on the equipment geographical are all parts of the complete system and must be protected in a secure physical environment. location

text: The following activities should be considered:

text: Training and • information sharing between different 5G actors; BP-O2 • adopting a holistic approach to security training and awareness among the employees, awareness including employees at all levels of the organisation; • ensuring that security training is continuous, regular and frequently updated.

text: A trust model of relationships among various 5G stakeholders should be built and be able to answer BP-O3 Trust model questions such as: ‘for what one does on trust?’, ‘How much should one trust?’ and ‘How much anyone can trust?’.

text: SLAs established between 5G stakeholders should include important security and compliance measures. In this respect, SLAs are like an insurance policy for the 5G network services.

text: BP-O4 SLAs establishment SLAs set the expectations for the performance of a service provider and for the security level. They also establish penalties for missing targets. In that concept, NFV could not leave unaffected the evolution of SLA models and their flexibility in adapting to more demanding parameters. An SLA management framework should be defined in order to fill the gap between 5G stakeholders.

text: 4.2 SECURITY REQUIREMENTS AND MEASURES OF THE EECC

text: Article 40

text: and Article 41 of the EECC define security requirements and measures as technical and organisational measures for managing the risks posed to the security of networks and services. ENISA guidance on security measures under the EECC are guidelines on security measures addressed to competent authorities concerning the technical details of implementing Articles 40 and 41 of the EECC: how to ensure that providers assess risks and take appropriate security measures. These guidelines list twenty-nine high-level security objectives, which are grouped in eight security domains. For each security objective they list specific detailed security measures which could be taken by providers to reach that particular security objective. Those security measures 62 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 are technology neutral. They should be applicable to a wide range of different types of technologies including NFV in 5G. 4.3 OTHER RELEVANT SECURITY HARDENING GUIDANCE For additional security hardening guidance, see among others: • ENISA - Security aspects of virtualisation focusing on virtualisation security . • NIS cooperation group security measures for OES providing technical and organisational security measures to manage risks posed to the security of NIS (Network and Information Systems) . Moreover, ENISA released a mapping of security measures for OESs to international standards used by operators in particular business sectors, namely energy, transport, banking, financial market infrastructures, health, drinking water supply and distribution, and digital infrastructures . • CISA’s Security Guidance for 5G Cloud Infrastructures: o Part I: Prevent and Detect Lateral Movement : detect malicious cyber actor activity in 5G clouds and prevent actors from leveraging the compromise of a single cloud resource to compromise the entire network; o Part II: Securely Isolate Network Resources : ensure that there is secure isolation among customer resources with emphasis on securing the container stack that supports the running of virtual network functions; o Part III: Data Protection : ensure that network and customer data is secured during all phases of the data lifecycle (at rest, in transit, while being processed, upon destruction); o Part IV: Ensure Integrity of Cloud Infrastructure : ensure that 5G cloud resources (e.g. container images, templates, configuration) are not modified without authorisation. • ETSI ISG NFV specifications: o Published specifications:  ETSI GR NFV-SEC 005: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV); Trust; Report on Certificate Management’;  ETSI GR NFV-SEC 018: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV); Security; Report on NFV Remote Attestation Architecture’;  ETSI GS NFV-SEC 022: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 2; Security; Access Token Specification for API Access’. o Draft Specifications (work in progress):  Draft ETSI GR NFV-SEC 016: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV); Location, locstamp and timestamp; Report on location, timestamping VNFs’;  Draft ETSI GS NFV-SEC 023: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 4; Security; Container Security Spec’;  Draft ETSI GS NFV-SEC 024: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 4; Security; Security Management’;  Draft ETSI GS NFV-SEC 025: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 4; Security; Secure E2E VNF & NS management’;  Draft ETSI GS NFV-SEC 026: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 4; Security; Isolation and trust domain’  Draft ETSI GR NFV-SEC 027: ‘Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 4; Security; Report on security assurance of NFVI’. 63 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 4.4 CHALLENGES, VULNERABILITIES, ATTACKS AND BEST PRACTICES This section describes the high-level interrelations, at the category level, between the categories of challenges, the categories of vulnerabilities, attacks, affected assets and best practices for addressing those challenges. The detailed matrix showing the link between a challenge and its associated vulnerabilities, attacks, affected assets and best practices is provided in Annex F. Challenges Affected Vulnerabilities categories Attacks Best practices categories Assets

text: • Service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components NFVI; NFV BP-T1 - Security monitoring and filtering

text: MANO; VNF; • Improper protection of data and information of NFV components BP-T2 – VNF image validation and protection VNFM; • • Human-instigated BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version changes Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities VIM/CISM; attacks • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of NFV Ve-Vnfm-em; BP-T4 - VNF deployment

text: • Software flaw Ve-Vnfm-vnf; components BP-T5 - VNF deletion or relocation attacks Os-Ma-nfvo; • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of NFV BP-T6 - Cryptography • Resource misuse Control plane

text: • Improper protection of service based Interfaces BP-T7 - Hypervisor protection attacks UPF/User

text: • Vulnerabilities in implementation of 5G network security functionalities • data; BP-T9 - Remote attestation Security standard

text: • Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs subversion attacks UPF/Signallin BP-T10 - Software compliance and integrity g data; gNB; preservation • Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs • LI attacks AMF; UDM; • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs • DDoS attacks BP-T11 - Security segmentation and isolation SMF; AUSF; SEPP; NRF; between network functions • Improper session protection mechanisms of 5G NFs • DNS Amplification

text: attacks NEF; SM BP-T12 - Secure boot integrity • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of 5G NFs

text: • Injection attacks Application BP-T13 - Data protection and privacy • Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs data traffic • OSS/BSS attacks BP-T14 - Encrypting VNF volume or swap areas • Improper hardening of 5G core components MEC Host Virtualisation/ • Malicious VM or BP-T15 - Trusted computing technologies • Vulnerabilities in implementation of SDN functionalities containerisation container attacks 3GPP SA6 BP-T16 - Hardware security • SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of SDN components interfaces; • Malicious hypervisor BP-T17 - Centralised log auditing • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of SDN ETSI MEC or CIS attacks components interfaces; BP-T19 – VNF protection

text: • Command and Application • Improper hardening of SDN components BP-T20 - Local or removal blade storage- SAN control channel data traffic; protection • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of SDN components attacks MEC BP-T21 - Network security

text: • Virtualisation vulnerabilities of relevant SDN components • Hardware attacks platform;

text: BP-T22 - SDN security management • Physical and environmental vulnerabilities of relevant SDN components • Network attacks Customer

text: BP-T26 - Deploying VMs or containers of • Vulnerabilities in implementation of MEC security functionalities • Time manipulation facing service (CFS) differing trust levels • attacks SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of MEC components portal; BP-T28 - Trusted time source • • Orchestration Improper protection of data and information attacks MEC BP-T29 - Secure third party hosting

text: • Virtualisation vulnerabilities of relevant MEC components applications; environments • Supply chain attacks • Improper hardening of MEC Components Edge BP-T30 - Redundancy and backup

text: • Third party hosting Application • MEC application vulnerabilities BP-T31 - Specific container security controls attacks Server (EAS)

text: • Vulnerabilities of the MEC virtualisation platform BP-T34 - User plane security Virtualisation

text: • Physical and environmental vulnerabilities of relevant MEC components infrastructure BP-T35 - MEC security

text: 64 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of MEC LCM Proxy; BP-P1 - Zero trust

text: components MEC BP-P7 - Restriction on installing applications • orchestrator Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth SDN BP-P9 - Strong password policy controller BP-P12 - Apply hardening policies Northbound interface; BP-P13 - Multi-vendors segregation and trust

text: Southbound BP-P14 - Security-by-design interface; BP-O1 - Secure physical environment and Eastbound- Westbound geographical location

text: interface BP-O3 - Trust model

text: SDN BP-O4 - SLAs establishment application;

text: SDN resources

text: SDN

text: infrastructure layer

text: • Service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components • Human-instigated

text: • Improper protection of data and information of NFV components attacks

text: • Improper hardening of NFV components • Software flaw NFV MANO; BP-T2 – VNF image validation and protection

text: • attacks VNF; NFVI; BP-T4 – VNF deployment Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities • Resource misuse VNFM; • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of NFV BP-T5 – VNF deletion or relocation VIM/CISM; components attacks Ve-Vnfm-em; BP-T6 – Cryptography • LI attacks • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of NFV Ve-Vnfm-vnf BP-T8 - Security management and orchestration

text: • DNS Amplification • Vulnerabilities due to legacy OSS/BSS systems UPF/User BP-T10 - Software compliance and integrity attacks Orchestration and • Improper protection of service based interfaces data; preservation management • Injection attacks UPF/Signallin • Vulnerabilities in implementation of 5G network security functionalities BP-T23 - MANO access control and • OSS/BSS attacks g data; gNB; management • Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs AMF; UDM; • Malicious VM or BP-T27 - Orchestration platform security • Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs SMF; AUSF; container attacks SEPP; NRF; management • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs • Malicious hypervisor NEF BP-P11 - Resource inventory management • Improper session protection mechanisms of 5G NFs or CIS attacks system and database OSS/BSS • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of 5G NFs • Network attacks systems BP-P14 - Security-by-design

text: • Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs • Orchestration

text: • Improper hardening of 5G core components attacks

text: • Human-instigated NFV MANO, • Service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components attacks NFVI; VNFM; BP-T1 - Security monitoring and filtering • Improper protection of data and information of NFV components • DNS Amplification VNF; BP-T2 – VNF image validation and protection Administration and • Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities VIM/CISM; attacks BP-T7 - Hypervisor protection access control • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of NFV Ve-Vnfm-em; • OSS/BSS attacks BP-T8 - Security management and orchestration Ve-Vnfm-vnf components • Malicious VM or BP-T9 - Remote attestation • UPF/User Improper protection of service based interfaces container attacks data;

text: 65 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: • Vulnerabilities in implementation of 5G network security functionalities • Malicious hypervisor UPF/Signallin BP-T18 - Use and ownership of ‘root’

text: • Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs or CIS attacks g data; gNB; administration credentials • AMF; UDM; • Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs Command and BP-T23 - MANO access control and control channel SMF; AUSF; management • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs SEPP; NRF; attacks BP-T24 - VIM connectivity to virtualisation layer • Improper session protection mechanisms of 5G NFs NEF • Network attacks BP-T27 - Orchestration platform security • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of 5G NFs management • Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs BP-P1 - Zero trust • Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-P9 - Strong password policy

text: BP-O2 - Training and awareness

text: BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: BP-T25 - Recovery and reinstallation

text: BP-T30 - Redundancy and backup

text: • OSS/BSS attacks BP-T32 - OSS/BSS protection • Service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components Control New and legacy • Hardware attacks plane; NFVI; BP-P5 - Incident management • Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities technologies • Mixed deployment OSS/BSS BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth • Vulnerabilities due to legacy OSS/BSS systems systems attacks BP-P12 - Apply hardening policies

text: BP-P14 - Security-by-design

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: BP-T29 - Secure third party hosting • Improper hardening of NFV components environments

text: • Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities BP-P2 - Security assessment of new or changes

text: • Improper protection of service based interfaces VNF; NFVI to existing VNF service templates

text: • • Software flaw UPF/User BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling and patch Vulnerabilities in implementation of 5G network security functionalities attacks data; management • Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs • Injection attacks UPF/Signallin BP-P5 - Incident management

text: Adoption of open

text: • Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs g data; gNB; source/COTS • Hardware attacks BP-P6 - Secure update management • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs AMF; UDM; • Third party hosting SMF; AUSF; BP-P12 - Apply hardening policies • Improper session protection mechanisms of 5G NFs attacks SEPP; NRF; BP-P15 - Lifecycle management • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of 5G NFs NEF BP-P16 - Software bill of materials (SBOM) • Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs BP-O3 - Trust model • Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: • Service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components Hardware platform BP-T25 - Recovery and reinstallation • Improper hardening of NFV components Os-Ma-nfvo; BP-T29 - Secure third party hosting • Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities environments Supply chain attacks NFV-MANO; Supply chain • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of NFV VNF; NFVI BP-P1 - Zero trust components UPF/User BP-P2 - Security assessment of new or changes • Improper protection of service-based interfaces data; to existing VNF service templates • Vulnerabilities in implementation of 5G network security functionalities UPF/Signallin

text: 66 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: • Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs g data; gNB; BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling and patch • Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs AMF; UDM; management SMF; AUSF; • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs BP-P4 - Security testing and assurance SEPP; NRF; • Improper session protection mechanisms of 5G NFs NEF BP-P5 - Incident management

text: • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of 5G NFs BP-P6 - Secure update management

text: • Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth

text: • Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-P10 - Secure supply chain

text: BP-P15 - Lifecycle management

text: BP-P16 - Software bill of materials (SBOM)

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: • Service-based vulnerabilities of NFV components • Improper protection of data and information of NFV components VNF; NFV MANO; NFVI; • Improper hardening of NFV components VNFM; Ve- • Virtualisation layer vulnerabilities Vnfm-em; • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of NFV Ve-Vnfm-vnf BP-T6 – Cryptography components SM BP-T15 - Trusted computing technologies • Vulnerabilities due to legacy OSS/BSS systems Control plane BP-T33 - LI capabilities • Improper protection of service-based interfaces UPF/User

text: Lawful interception

text: LI attacks data; BP-P5 - Incident management (LI) • Vulnerabilities in implementation of 5G network security functionalities UPF/Signallin BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth • Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs g data; gNB; BP-P12 - Apply hardening policies • Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-P14 – Security-by-design • Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs SEPP; NRF; • Improper session protection mechanisms of 5G NFs NEF • Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of 5G NFs OSS/BSS • Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs systems

text: • Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: 67 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 5. OPEN AND FUTURE SECURITY CHALLENGES

text: Although many solutions have been proposed to overcome the security challenges in NFV, many potential security challenges remain. Table 19 illustrates some of the research challenges and future directions for NFV security. Table 19: Open and future security challenges Challenge Challenge description References

text: The risks of being able to capture encrypted data in an unencrypted form due to processing

text: Encrypted data

text: of that data increases significantly. If that processing is highly sensitive (e.g. AUC [47]

text: processing

text: (authentication centre) or LI functions) then the risk may not be acceptable.

text: To truly understand performance, we must simulate growth in network usage. If overall loads grow by 50%, how will VNF performance be impacted? And if all the load is centred on one

text: Performance

text: type or pattern of traffic or usage vs multiple types? What is the expected performance [48]

text: degradation

text: degradation when using resource oversubscription? Different types of usage may require different service chains that impact resources in a completely different way.

text: What to do when something breaks? When a host fails, are the VNFs that are running transitioned appropriately to other hosts? Are the correct rules set up to govern that Host failure transition? How long does it take for the VNFs to resume service and is there an interruption [48] of service? It is crucial to validate the answers to these questions in system testing and in production to prevent critical issues.

text: Compromised Substantial and structural security issues may still remain around isolation of sensitive [49] virtualisation layer functions where hypervisors, host OS and CISs are hostile or compromised.

text: One of the security challenges is to define the standard interface in the ETSI NFV architecture to deploy virtual security functions to react to various threats in real time. Such functionalities should be able to communicate with the orchestration modules and follow the instructions provided. Another challenge is to securely manage and monitor VNFs by maintaining their configuration and information on their state during migration. This can be difficult to do due to the dynamicity and elasticity of VNF operations in cloud environments. Another challenge is to perform trust management between different vendors who build NFV hardware and software. The challenge is to efficiently manage the trust chain among vendors and provide trustiness in the final VNF products. Runtime attestation At the moment, attestation technologies only provide boot time attestation. This does not [50], [132] guarantee modification during runtime or prevent tampering with the system’s critical components, and such modifications would only be detected when the system is rebooted. Runtime attestation is still an open research area that needs to be explored further. There is also a strong need to develop a comprehensive security architecture to take care of these security challenges in NFVI. To achieve these goals, network operators and vendors need to work together to form a vibrant security eco-system. New standards, testbeds, and proofs of concept would serve as a catalyst for securing NFV infrastructure. The services in this new virtualised environment are evolving rapidly and, in turn, create new opportunities for innovation.

text: Distributed denial-of- How to utilise the flexibility of VNF to defend against DDoS attacks in the network is a major [51] service attacks challenge.

text: The emergence of NFV provides opportunities for various vendors to enter the networking infrastructure market by providing NFV compatible hardware and software. It will be common Trust management in to have multiple vendors involved in a NFV supported network. However, how to manage the [51] NFV trust chain and evaluate the trustworthiness of products is another research challenge. Also, how to adaptively configure VNFs by choosing software to minimise security risk of the network is another research topic.

text: 68 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: It is important to maintain trust between the VNFs for the provision of security validation and integrity. The following are three types of trusts which are important between VNFs:

text: • trust in the correctness of information output between software components;

text: • trust that the software components will operate correctly; Trust between VNFs [52] • trust in the performance of operations that have an indirect influence on data.

text: Trusting relationships are basic requirements for the software programs to be able to work with each other in NFV environment. The trusting relationships chain needs to be made longer in order to reach the level of complete security.

text: There is a risk when validating images, onboarding and deploying VNFs on NFVI. Currently, these processes are not part of the orchestration.

text: Challenges with VNF Every operator has its unique network configuration of hardware and software vendors plus images validation and all the vast numbers of parameter settings. In real time communication there is also a number [53] VNF of real-time dependencies, timers and correct sequences that must be considered.

text: onboarding/deploying

text: To consider these challenges, a comprehensive certification process, standardised testing framework and the creation of assets to automate the validation, onboarding and deployment of VNFs are required to reduce risks.

text: 69 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 6. CONCLUSION

text: NFV in 5G is a technology that is continuously evolving through time due to the new technologies, requirements and services that need to be addressed. Security, as an inherent quality that has to be conceived along with the new services, is no exception and must keep up with the pace. Security in the NFV era presents a long-term challenge. As NFV security technology continues to develop, automated and virtualised protection systems with robust security models will enable NFV networks to thrive. 5G deployments uses modern virtualisation techniques for distributed and cloud computing and networking. NFV and SDN are approaches where these modern techniques are brought into consistent frameworks which 5G systems builders can use to be effective and to create vendor products that are interoperable. Those technologies that allow progress to take place are also technologies that can expose new security challenges. Securing 5G must be designed-in and not be an afterthought. Hence, a careful approach to the new aspects of cloud-native services, SDN and NFV can improve their security. Additionally, taking a zero trust approach, combined with the advanced techniques of cyberthreat intelligence, will further enhance 5G’s security. In this report we have highlighted the main security challenges that (i) open up with these technologies and (ii) arise due to the interoperability among them, which enables NFV in 5G. Some of the main challenges highlighted in this report have shown the following. • Centralisation of management capabilities presents a single-point-of-failure weakness. • Use of standardised general-purpose server and storage machines, routinely built with open-source code, represent an increase in threats or attack surfaces. • The growing participation of multiple partners or vendors, processes and subsystems in the creation and delivery of services introduce the risks of data leaks, data residue, and attacks. It can also create very complex supply chains. It’s difficult to manage so many vendors. All it takes is a security flaw in one of the vendor’s environments to launch a supply chain attack whose impact can reach far and wide. • The more software components in a NFV, the more possibilities there are of finding potential software vulnerabilities. • 5G NFV architecture security should be decentralised by dividing it into a core network and an edge network. Because the protection targets are widely distributed, there are issues with the visibility of security. To solve challenges, we have provided a list of technical, organisational and policy best practices in security. The security architecture for NFV must be multi-layered. The aim should be to have security-by-design across all 5G NFV network elements and layers. It is imperative that security is ‘designed-in’ at all levels to ensure resilience, robustness and address the connected world of the future enabled by 5G. Security management and orchestration are necessary to coordinate security protection across layers. Hardening and patching NFV security can counteract software vulnerabilities. Isolating resources between different VMs or containers on the same physical machine on the virtualisation layer can prevent data theft and malicious attacks between VMs or containers. In-house or third-party security audits, or both, should be encouraged as a best practice for empowering mobile networks (not limited to 5G NFV only). Operators need to be alert and always one step ahead of possible security events. 70 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Efforts should be concentrated on developing, automating and refining technologies, policies and processes for service orchestration, on the detection and prevention of intrusions, on solutions to protect against viruses and malware, on dynamic authentication, identity, access and the management of trust relationships, on the encryption of user traffic and its control or management, on the screening, filtering and inspection of traffic, and on the segregation of data and networks. The level of security automation to automate the provisioning of networks, their security and management in order to continuously maximise network efficiency and functionality should be increased. With virtualised and highly distributed networks, effective 5G NFV end-to-end security requires automated monitoring, mechanisms to prevent threats and protection systems to provide swift responses to known and unknown threats in real-time. A truly end-to-end approach to NFV security needs to consider the current ETSI and 3GPP standards. 3GPP technical specifications on security architecture and procedures for 5G system and ETSI technical specifications on security for NFV come with a set of security features and improvements. To ensure the expected security benefits are realised, it is important that security requirements defined in the 3GPP and ETSI specifications are fully and correctly implemented and used, including relevant optional requirements. Creation of a secure NFV architecture in 5G will enable customer privacy and security, build trust and encourage adoption of 5G for critical functions (e.g. critical national infrastructure or functions requiring high reliability such as healthcare). In addition to the security challenges and best practices explored in this report, we have outlined the roles and responsibilities in terms of security of the main 5G stakeholders and administrators providing and managing the NFV in 5G. Moreover, we highlighted the main assets to be protected with CIA security properties, the vulnerabilities of various components and network interfaces that can be exploited by the adversary, and the attack scenarios that may impact NFV in 5G. Links between all those elements are provided in the annexes. At the end of this report, a list of annexes is included to provide the full taxonomies of and the links between the different elements from the core of the report. In addition, the annex provides the standardisation efforts on NFV and SDN from various entities in the telecom industry and other bodies. 71 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

text: Term Description

text: 3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project AF Application Function AMF Access and Mobility Management Function API Application Programming Interface ARPF Authentication Credential Repository and Processing Function AUC Authentication Centre AUSF Authentication Server Function BBF Broadband Forum BBU Base Band Unit BSS Business Support System CAPEX Capital Expenditure CDPI Control to Data-Path Interface CIA Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability CIR Container Image Registry CISM Container Infrastructure Service Management CN Container CNCF Cloud Native Computing Foundation CNF Cloud-native Network Function CNFD Cloud Native Network Function Descriptor CNFI Cloud Native Network Function Instance CNI Critical National Infrastructure COTS Commercial Off The Shelf CP Control Plane CPRI Common Public Radio Interface C-RAN Cloud RAN CSP Communication Service Provider CU Central Unit DANOS Disaggregated Network Operating System DN Data Network DoS Denial of Service

text: 72 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: DPDK Data Plane Development Kit DPI Deep Packet Inspection DRM Digital Rights Management DU Distributed Unit ECOMP Enhanced Control, Orchestration, Management and Policy eCPRI Evolved CPRI EMS Element Management System EPC Evolved Packet Core ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute FCAPS Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance and Security Management FD.io Fast Data Project Input/Output GDPR General Data Protection Directive GDT Global Descriptor Table GPRS General Packet Radio Service GTP GPRS Tunnelling Protocol HLR Home Location Register HMEE Hardware Mediated Execution Environment HSM Hardware Security Module HSS Home Subscriber Server IAAS Infrastructure As A Service ICT Information Communication Technology IDS Intrusion Detection System IDT Interrupt Descriptor Table IMS IP Multimedia Subsystem IP Internet Protocol IPS Intrusion Prevention System IT Information Technology IPUPS Inter-PLMN UP Security KVM Kernel-based Virtual Machine LADN Local Area Data Network LAN Local Area Network LI Lawful Interception LEA Law Enforcement Agency

text: 73 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: MANO Management and Orchestration M-CORD Mobile Central Office Re-architected as Datacentre MCIOP Managed Container Infrastructure Object Package MEC Multi-access Edge Computing MME Mobility Management Entity MMS Multimedia Messaging Service MNO Mobile Network Operator MSB Micro-services Bus Project MVNO Mobile Virtual Network Operator N3IWF Non-3GPP Inter-Working Function NSD Network Service Descriptor NFVI Network Function Virtualisation Infrastructure NFVO NFV Orchestrator NAAS Network As A Service NAS Non- Access Stratum NEF Network Exposure Function NF Network Function NFV Network Functions Virtualisation NGC Next Generation Core NGIC Next Generation Intelligent Core NRF Network Repository Function NRP Network Repository Protocol NS Network Service NSA Non-Standalone NSSF Network Slice Selection Function NWDAF Network Data Analytics Function OAM Operation and Maintenance OCP Open Compute Project OAI Open Air Interface OCP Open Compute Project ODL Open Daylight ONAP Open Network Automation Project ONOS Open Network Operating System

text: 74 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: O-RAN Open Radio Access Network OS Operating System OSD Open-Source Definition OSI Open-Source Initiative OSS Operations Support System PCF Policy Control Function PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI Bus) PLMN Public Land Mobile Network PNF Physical Network function PoP Point of Presence QoS Quality of Service RAN Radio Access Network REC Radio Equipment Controller REST Representational State Transfer RRH Remote Radio Head RRU Remote Radio Unit SAN Storage Area Network SBA Service Based Architecture SBI Service Based Interface SCMF Security Context Management Function SDHC Secure Digital High Capacity SDN Software Defined Networking SDO Standards Development Organisation SEAF Security Anchor Function SEPP Security Edge Protection Proxy SIDF Subscription Identifier De-concealing Function SIP Session Initiation Protocol SLA Service-level Agreement SMF Session Management Function SMS Short Message Service SQL Structured Query Language SSD Solid State Drive SSL Secure Sockets Layer

text: 75 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: STP Signalling Transfer Point TDM Time Division Multiplexing TIP Telecom Infra Project TOSCA Topology and Orchestration Specification for Cloud Applications TPM Trusted Platform Module TLS Transport Layer Security TSS Task State Segment UDM Unified Data Management UDR Unified Data Repository UE User Equipment UI User Interface UP User Plane UPF User Plane Function USB Universal Serial Bus UICC Universal Integrated Circuit Card VIM Virtual Infrastructure Manager VLAN Virtual LAN VM Virtual Machine VNF Virtual Network Function VNFC Virtual Network Function Component VNFI Virtual Network Function Instance VNFD Virtual Network Function Descriptor VNFM VNF Manager VNIC Virtual Network Interface Controller VPN Virtual Private Network VPP Vector Packet Processing VXLAN Virtual Extensible LAN WAN Wide Area Network XaaS Anything As A service XSS Cross Site Scripting YML YAML Script, human-readable data serialisation language ZOOM Zero-touch Orchestration, Operations and Management

text: 76 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: REFERENCES

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text: A ANNEX: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

text: Roles Responsibilities 5G Stakeholders

text: He is in charge of: • installation, maintenance or replacement of the network device; • configuration of the network device; MNO

text: Network

text: • collection and analysis of log events generated by the network device; Equipment Network equipment Administrator • deploying firmware patches in compliance with network vendor’s guidance on vendors deployment; • monitoring, identifying and notifying network vendors of vulnerabilities discovered; • regularly testing the configuration of the network device.

text: He is in charge of: • deployment of patches in compliance with the provider’s guidance on the deployment of the virtualisation software infrastructure; MNO Virtualisation • monitoring, identifying and notifying the providers of virtualisation software MVNO software infrastructure of vulnerabilities discovered; infrastructure Virtualisation software • securely configuring the virtualisation software infrastructure; administrator infrastructure provider • regularly testing the configuration of the virtualisation software infrastructure; Cloud providers • analysing log events generated by the virtualisation software infrastructure; • access control management.

text: He is in charge of: • deployment of patches in compliance with the provider’s guidance on the deployment of the virtualisation hardware infrastructure; MNO Virtualisation • monitoring, identifying and notifying the providers of virtualisation hardware Hardware infrastructure of vulnerabilities discovered; Virtualisation hardware Infrastructure infrastructure provider • securely configuring the virtualisation hardware infrastructure;

text: Administrator

text: Cloud providers • regularly testing the configuration of the virtualisation hardware infrastructure; • analysing log events generated by the virtualisation hardware infrastructure; • access control management.

text: He is in charge of: • management of user accounts and credentials; MNO

text: NFV security

text: • management of secrets (keys, certificates); administrator MVNO • configuration of remote access; • vulnerability handling.

text: He is in charge of: • audit of NFV components; • monitoring and analysis of security events and logs; MNO

text: NFV system

text: • configuration of NFV components; administrator MVNO • monitoring of network traffic; • patch management; • backups.

text: 84 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: He is in charge of: • appropriately integrating NFV HW and SW components; • ensuring that those components function together as expected; MNO

text: NFV system

text: integrator MVNO • securely configuring (system level) the NFV system; • testing patches after deployment to ensure that they do not break other parts of the NFV system or even expose new vulnerabilities.

text: He is in charge of: MNO • configuration of VNFs; MVNO VNF • management and monitoring of the daily operational tasks (notably provisioning) of NF vendors administrator VNFs; Service providers • access control management; Vertical markets • logs management.

text: He is in charge of: • configuration of VIM; MNO

text: VIM

text: • management and monitoring of the daily VIM activities and operational tasks; administrator MVNO • access control management; • mogs management.

text: He is in charge of: MNO • configuration of VNFM; MVNO

text: VNFM

text: • management and monitoring of the daily VNFM activities and the operational tasks; NF vendors

text: administrator

text: • access control management; Service providers • logs management. Vertical markets

text: MNO MVNO Storage He manages the shared storage between VNFs: resources management, management of NF vendors administrator access control and secure destruction. Service providers Vertical markets

text: Security He is in charge of key management (LI keys, VNF keys, encryption keys, certificates, etc.) MNO devices within security devices (e.g. HSM, TPM): generation, protection, management of access administrator control, secure destruction, and import/export. MVNO

text: Internal MNO He is responsible for security assessment and verification of the NFV components received

text: validation

text: from vendor before their deployment. MVNO

text: laboratory

text: 85 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: B ANNEX: ASSETS MAPS

text: Diagrams of the 5G NFV asset mind maps are illustrated in the following figures. Figure 17: NFV network components assets mind map 86 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Figure 18: NFV MANO network components assets mind map Figure 19: NFV processes and environment assets mind map 87 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Figure 20: NFV data assets mind map 88 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Assets Asset description Confidentiality Integrity Availability

text: NFV network components

text: • VNF package e.g. the software and some descriptors; • VNF instance with the guest OS (in case of VM), libs, the VNFs x x virtual links, the VNFC instance included in the VNF instance, the security and configuration parameters.

text: Virtualisation/

text: Software on compute nodes such as hypervisors, host operating Containerisati x x systems, and CISs.

text: on platform

text: It holds virtual computing, networking and storage resources. This includes:

text: NFVI • physical hardware resources for computing, storage and x x network connectivity; • virtualisation resources allowing VNFs to run.

text: NFV MANO network components

text: Management and orchestration of VNFs, the NFVI and the virtualisation layer. It includes the virtual infrastructure manager (e.g. OpenStack) and container orchestration engines (e.g. Kubernetes) which support the full lifecycle management of VNFs that carry out the functions of the network.

text: • NFV orchestrator (NFVO): resource management of the NFV infrastructure and lifecycle management of network services NFV MANO x x (e.g. instantiation, scale-out/in, performance measurement results, event collection and correlation, termination); • VNFM: lifecycle management of VNF instances; • VIM: controlling and managing the NFV infrastructure computing, storage and network resources and collection and forwarding of the results of performance measurement and faults or events information relative to virtualised resources.

text: NFV data

text: • VNF image store: the repository of VNF images and VNF descriptors (VNFD), scripts and metadata files; • VNF instance identity, security policies, data associated to the VNF for the license management and enforcement (e.g. service provider ID); • some data related to the service-based architecture are also sensitive data, e.g. the VNF registration information, access policies and access token used to control access to the API of the VNF; • the interdependency between VNFs implementing a network service (VNF Set) and VNF forwarding graph (sequence of data to flow); VNFs data x x x • list of authorised VNF; • configuration data; • the topology of the available or supported VNFs; • VNF data used for the attestation process, such as the VNF integrity measurement that are used by the attestation server to check the integrity of the VNF software; • time reference, timestamping information and location; • the lawful interception data, the VNF monitoring information (e.g. metrics, measurements, events) and the VNF instance states; • VNF application data: o subscriber data managed by UDM and UDR network functions,

text: 89 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: o policy data managed by PCF and UDR network functions, o exposure function data managed by NEF and UDR network functions, o application data such as those managed by NEF and UDR network functions, o UE context managed by AMF and UDSF network functions.

text: • the network topology, describing constituents of the NS, their communication links, their affinity or anti-affinity rules, the priority information; NS data • monitoring data, such as metrics, measurements, and events x x x • LCM scripts; • SLA that the service provider needs to protect (e.g. bandwidth, latency, availability).

text: NFV Traffic (data and command flow) between the various NFV traffic x x x components of NFV, MANO and SDN. Keys belonging to NFV:

text: • private keys to initiate secure communications between VNF (e.g. IPSec/TLS keys); • encryption/decryption keys of VNF executables and their data; • the cryptographic keys managed by the hypervisor or CIS to encrypt volumes and images;

text: NFV crypto

text: • private/public authentication keys specific to each VM or x x x

text: keys

text: container: o a private key allowing a VM or container to authenticate itself with other VMs or containers, o a public key (or a collection of public keys) allowing a VM or container to authenticate data received from another VM or container; • Keys used for a secure boot.

text: Logs - access to compute nodes; Logs - access to physical network equipment; Logs - access to NFV core platform management and configuration interfaces; Logs - real-time operations; Logs – system; Security logs x x x Logs - administrative activities; Logs - VNF behaviour; Logs - behaviour of host OS, hypervisors, CIS, VIM, CISM, NFVO and VNFM; Issue, switching logs, etc.; Logs - access to shared storage.

text: NFV processes and environment

text: Business continuity, fraud management, regulatory management,

text: MNOs

text: security management (vulnerability handling, patch management, x x

text: processes

text: trusted update, security testing and risk assessment).

text: Management of the different lifecycle phases (design,

text: Vendors

text: implementation, testing, production, operation, maintenance, x x

text: processes

text: security monitoring, patch management).

text: Physical Facilities (computing, network, storage, servers) for running x x x Environment services, time, legal, policy, OSSs/BSSs, PNFs and human assets.

text: 90 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: C ANNEX: VULNERABILITY TAXONOMY

text: ID Categories Vulnerability Vulnerability description Associated assets

text: The transmitter of a message should provide a means to allow for determining whether any Improper message and session modification, deletion, insertion or replay has occurred. The receiver should have corresponding VUL1 integrity checks on internal NFV MANO verification mechanisms. Lack of such measures or improper messages facilitate the abuse and interfaces modification of sessions and messages.

text: Improper protection of Lack of appropriate protection of the confidentiality of data transferred over any internal interface of VUL2 confidentiality of data transferred NFV MANO; VNF MANO. over internal interfaces to MANO

text: Service-based TLS not implemented for API communication, or implementation shortcomings such as lack of TLSvulnerabilities of NFV Improper API Access VUL3 based authentication: client and authorisation servers are not mutually authenticated or client does Os-Ma-nfvo components implementation not authenticate the resource server.

text: Vulnerabilities of a PNF could be used as a starting point for an attack against VNFs, potentially VUL4 Use of legacy PNF Control plane taking advantage of any legacy security used by PNFs and not provided by the virtualisation layer.

text: If an internal interface allows any actions from data received without successfully identifying and Improper verification of identity and verifying the identity and location of the transmitting party, it enables masquerading of the VUL5 location of transmitting party on NFV MANO orchestrator and other forms of privilege escalation that in turn can lead to abuse of VIM or VNFM internal interfaces functions by unauthorised parties.

text: Inability to provide proof of integrity Poor monitoring of stored images to determine if any unauthorised modification, deletion or insertion

text: VUL6 of the data stores used for VM or has occurred renders VIM unable to ensure the integrity of VM or container images and of data VIM/CISM

text: container images transfers.

text: Lack of protection of user and An attacker could read and/or manipulate data in transit if control and user planes data in transit VUL7 Control plane control planes data between hosts is not sent over an encrypted, signed and authenticated channel.

text: Once identified, vulnerabilities in software can be fixed through security patches whereas hardware Improper hardening vulnerabilities are much more costly to fix. Security patches may require a reboot and could cause of NFV components VUL8 Improper patch management service disruption, particularly if many commodity servers have to be rebooted over a short period. VNF

text: Security patches are not always done in time. Failure to apply necessary patches leave the systems

text: open to the exploitation of known vulnerabilities.

text: Complexity brought by virtualisation increases the probability that errors and misconfigurations will

text: remain undetected. Accidental misconfigurations or failure to follow security standards and practices VUL9 Misconfiguration VNF can cause service problems directly, or leave open unintended vulnerabilities, which will cause

text: service problems if exploited.

text: 91 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: The MANO system should allow instantiation of MANO components and managed entities, the No mechanism to enforce geo- VUL10 NFVIs, only at explicit geographic locations. Failure to do so may leave the system vulnerable to NFV MANO restrictions legal and licensing risks.

text: VNFs must synchronise with trusted time servers. Failure to do so, leaves the system vulnerable to

text: an attack that manipulates the network timing source or VNF clock, thus causing the network to be VUL11 Time manipulation compromised. VNF

text: It is possible to move clock back and forth in order to confuse the NFVI and VNFs.

text: Administrative models that enable an admin/root/super user account type to have full access to

text: system resources allow visibility and modification of cryptographic keys, passwords in memory,

text: configuration files, intellectual property and other resources within the NFV. The hypervisor is fully Inadequate access privileges in VUL12 aware of the current state of each guest OS it controls. Hypervisor introspection can enable the NFVI virtualised environments ability to view, inject, and/or modify information on operational state associated with the NFV through

text: direct or indirect methods. Access to status information can result in the ability to arbitrarily read

text: and/or write the contents of memory, storage, key storage and other NFV operational aspects.

text: The host system shall provide cryptographically separated secure environments for different

text: VUL13 Virtualisation layer Improper key management system applications. In the absence of these conditions, the virtualised environment can be abused to SM

text: vulnerabilities compromise sensitive functions from less protected ones.

text: Lack of a proper mechanism for A hardware-based root of trust (HBRT) should act as an initial root of trust to ensure a safe VUL14 ensuring a hardware-based root of NFVI environment for running sensitive virtualised components. trust (HBRT)

text: The risks from software vulnerabilities could be higher with NFV than with traditional bespoke

text: Software vulnerabilities in NFV appliances because VNFs are expected to run on commodity software and hardware and because VUL15 VNF implementation NFV is built on cloud technology with a standard level of security. Virtualisation technology will need

text: to be re-assessed before it can be considered suitable for protecting critical network infrastructure.

text: Improper procedures for signing and managing associated cryptographic keys may enable the VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding VNFM manipulation and compromise of the integrity of VNF Packages.

text: Lack of or improper mechanisms to prevent the instantiation of VNF packages unless their signature Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm- VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation is verified may enable the manipulation and compromise of the integrity of VNFs. vnf

text: Vulnerable Unauthenticated access to the system functions of NFV management and orchestration: the use of a mechanisms for system function without successful authentication on the basis of the user’s identity and at least one VUL18 authentication and Improper authentication policy NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI authentication attribute (e.g. password, certificate) opens an opportunity for exploitation and limits authorisation of NFV accountability. This includes M2M communication. components

text: Failure to protect accounts by at least one authentication attribute or active predefined authentication

text: attributes: depending on information sensitivity, different levels of strong authentication mechanisms Insecure or insufficient VUL19 are required. Failure to identify the proper correspondence between levels of protection and the NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI authentication attributes authentication mechanisms implemented creates the possibility unauthorised entities will be allowed

text: to access unallocated resources.

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text: A password policy must address password structure, password change, hidden password display

text: capabilities and consecutive failed login attempts. A weak password structure and/or a password VUL20 Insecure password policy NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI validity period that is too long could lead to a successful brute force attack. Failure to block

text: consecutive failed login attempts may lead to a password being guessed.

text: Insecure authentication The network product management must support mechanisms for mutual authentication. The mutual VUL21 mechanisms to management or NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI authentication mechanism can rely on the protocol used for the interface itself or other means. maintenance interfaces

text: Insecure authorisation and access The authorisations for accounts and applications must be reduced to the minimum required for the VUL22 NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI control mechanisms tasks they have to perform.

text: Insufficient or inadequate logging A lack of security events being logged together with a unique system reference (e.g. host name, IP or

text: VUL23 of security events for MANO and MAC address) and the exact time an incident occurred do not allow a correct and rapid audit in the NFV-MANO; NFVI

text: NFVI event of security incidents occurring

text: Insufficient or

text: improper monitoring Logs not transferred to centralised Security event logs should be forwarded or uploaded to a central location or external systems. VUL24 NFV-MANO; NFVI mechanisms of NFV storage Security event log files shall also be protected in storage and transfer states.

text: Improper protection of security Availability and integrity of log files of security events could lead to delays, wrong audit results, delays VUL25 NFV-MANO; NFVI event log files in the restoration of security and the persistence of threats.

text: The OSS/BSS applications may use weak cryptography in their components. According to ANSSI,

text: BSI, SOG-IS and NIST reports, several encryptions and hashing algorithms are considered insecure.

text: For instance, TDES, MD5, SHA1, RSA (key size smaller than 2048 bits) algorithms are still used for Use of weak cryptographic VUL26 encryption, signature and hashing purposes. These algorithms are considered inadequate for OSS/BSS systems algorithms modern security requirements. A weak encryption algorithm is a critical security problem in an

text: OSS/BSS system since the encrypted data transmitted with NFV/MANO includes sensitive

text: information.

text: Vulnerabilities due to The security of each interface depends on the type of interface, manufacturer, etc. Newer interfaces legacy OSS/BSS Insecure interface between such as SOAP and REST over TLS are more secure than older interfaces. Unsecure interfaces may VUL27 systems OSS/BSS systems OOS/BSS and NFV/MANO still be in use such as TLSv1, FTP, SNMP and compromised by exploiting vulnerabilities in protocols

text: such as insecure settings, spoofing, and other vulnerabilities.

text: OSS/BSS systems log high amounts of data, which includes request logs, provisioning logic

text: execution logs, user audit trails, etc. Apart from helping in finding faults in the application, logging Insufficient or inadequate logging VUL28 also helps in finding security breaches. Nevertheless, the high amount of data that goes into OSS/BSS systems of sensitive data OSS/BSS logs makes logging an important asset to secure. Logs may be archived in insecure

text: network storage. Attackers can use a combination of attacks to get access to logs.

text: Service-based-interfaces of network functions should provide adequate protection for access and for

text: data in transit. Relevant vulnerabilities include: Improper protection of Improper transport layer protection All 5G network functions VUL29 service-based • improper transport layer protection, and improper authentication mechanisms; of service-based interfaces (SBI) (NF) utilising SBI interfaces • vulnerable authorisation mechanisms on service access.

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text: Incorrect or incomplete implementation of security requirements, as defined in 3GPP TS 33.501 open confidentiality, integrity and availability risk, for all data passed across networks and for unprotected access to network functions. Relevant vulnerabilities in 5G NFs implementation include: • UPF; AMF; UDM; SMF; Incorrect implementation of 5G incorrect implementation of cryptographic material handling; network functions security AUSF; SEPP; NRF; NEF

text: • handling of cryptographic material beyond connection-specific scope; requirements • incorrect implementation of protection policies mismatch handling;

text: • no authentication on application function; • no authorisation on northbound APIs.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include:

text: • system functions revealing confidential data; UPF/User data; Improper protection of data and UPF/Signalling data; VUL31 • improper protection of data and information in storage; information of 5G NFs components gNB; AMF; UDM; SMF; • lack of or improper cryptographic protection of data in transfer; AUSF; SEPP; NRF; NEF

text: • no traceability of access to personal data.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: Vulnerabilities of 5G NFs • failure to address overload situation; UPF; gNB; AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; SEPP; Improper protection of availability VUL32 • boot from unauthorised memory devices; NRF; NEF and integrity of 5G NFs • improper handling of unexpected input;

text: • insufficient assurance of software package integrity.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include:

text: • unauthenticated access to system functions; • improper authentication mechanisms; UPF; gNB; AMF; UDM; Vulnerable mechanisms for SMF; AUSF; SEPP; VUL33 authentication and authorisation of • predefined or default accounts and/or authentication attributes; NRF; NEF 5G NFs • weak or missing password policy;

text: • lack of mutual authentication of entities for management interfaces;

text: • improper authorisation and access control policy.

text: The system must have a function that allows a signed in user to logout at any time. All processes under the logged in user ID shall be terminated on log out. A permanent exposed session increases UPF; gNB; AMF; UDM; Improper / missing functionality for VUL34 the vulnerability of the system as an entry point for an unauthorised person. An OAM user interactive SMF; AUSF; SEPP; session protection session must be terminated automatically after a specified period of inactivity. It must be possible to NRF; NEF configure an inactivity time-out period.

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text: A lack of security events logged together with a unique system reference (e.g. host name, IP or MAC UPF; gNB; AMF; UDM; Lack of or improper security event VUL35 address) and the exact time the incident occurred do not allow for a correct and rapid audit should a SMF; AUSF; SEPP; logging security incident occur. Security restoration is delayed. NRF; NEF Relevant vulnerabilities include: • improper or missing controls for the protection of security event log files; • improper handling of growing content by file system; UPF; gNB; AMF; UDM; Vulnerabilities in SMF; AUSF; SEPP; Vulnerabilities in operating VUL36 operating systems • processing of ICMP packets not required for operation; NRF; NEF systems supporting 5G NFs supporting 5G NFs • processing of IP packets with unnecessary options or extensions; • privileged escalation allowed without re-authentication; • recurrent UIDs for UNIX System accounts.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: • unnecessary or insecure services or protocols; • unrestricted reachability of services; • unused software or hardware components; • unsupported components; • remote login of privileged users; • excessive file system authorisation privileges; Improper hardening • lack of protection against IP-source address spoofing; Service-based interfaces Improper hardening of 5G core VUL37 of 5G core (SBI); all 5G NFs; components • unneeded kernel network functions; components control plane • automatic launch of removable media; • no protection against buffer overflows; • no or improper external file system mount restrictions; • unused file type- or script-mappings; • unrestricted access to files; • presence of default content; • inadequate traffic separation of traffic belonging to different network domains.

text: Improper mechanisms for Lack of functionality in the SDN control layer to support the prevention of conflicts between flow rules VUL38 SDN controller preventing flow rules confliction in order to avoid mandatory network policies from being bypassed. Relevant vulnerabilities include: SDN controller SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of SDN VUL39 • insecure APIs, components Northbound interface; • improper mechanisms to protect the integrity and confidentiality of configuration data. Southbound interface;

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text: Eastbound-Westbound Interface

text: Improper authentication and Improper authentication and/or authorisation mechanism for SDN controller or defective VUL40 SDN controller authorisation implementations of these mechanisms.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include:

text: • multiple vulnerabilities in operating system; Improper hardening of SDN VUL41 • software vulnerabilities; SDN controller Vulnerabilities of SDN components • improper mechanisms for the management of cryptographic keys; • lack of, or improper, DoS protection mechanisms.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: Insufficient or improper monitoring VUL42 • improper log and audit mechanisms; SDN controller mechanisms of SDN components • lack of, or improper, hardware monitoring mechanisms.

text: Vulnerabilities in the virtualisation layer may lead to risks such as unauthorised access to SDN resources. Cloud solutions used for SDN implementation may lead to vulnerabilities specific to cloud Virtualisation vulnerabilities of SDN application; SDN VUL43 technology. relevant SDN components resources SDN offers programmers a high level of abstraction. When applications are developed, caution is required to protect the network operation against application misbehaviour and bugs.

text: Many SDN systems are deployed within datacentres. The security vulnerabilities of datacentres need VUL44 Datacentre vulnerabilities to be considered. Data servers are using data centre interconnect (DCI) protocols, which may lack SDN infrastructure layer authentication and encryption to secure the packet contents.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: Application data traffic; Vulnerabilities in implementation of • improper mechanisms for collection, secure storage and transmission of charging-related VUL45 MEC host; multi-edge MEC security functionalities information; computing • improper mechanisms for lawful interception at edge level.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: 3GPP SA6 interfaces ; SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of MEC VUL46 • improper implementation of APIs; ETSI MEC interfaces ; components application data traffic • improper traffic path update for mobility support.

text: Improper access control to The mobile edge platform must only provide a mobile edge application with the information for which MEC platform; MEC

text: information the application is authorised. application; EAS

text: Security risks and concerns around virtual systems can be broadly classified into three types: (1) Vulnerable virtualisation, / architectural: the layer of abstraction between the physical hardware and the virtualised systems VUL48 container / micro-service running services is a potential target for attack. A VM or container or group of VMs or containers VIM/CISM Vulnerabilities of environment connected to the same network can be the target of attacks from other VMs or containers on the MEC network. (2) The virtualisation layer (host OS, hypervisor and CIS software): the most important software in a virtual system is the virtualisation layer. Any security vulnerability in the virtualisation

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text: layer and associated infrastructure and management software or tools puts VNFs at risk. (3) configuration: given the ease of cloning and copying images in a virtual environment, a new infrastructure can be deployed very easily. This introduces configuration drift. As a result, controlling and accounting for rapidly deployed environments becomes a critical task.

text: Due to the distributed nature of edge computing deployments, appropriate DDoS mechanisms may Customer facing service VUL49 Lack of / improper DDoS rotection be impractical to deploy. Alternative protection mechanisms need to be implemented in order to deter (CFS) portal attacks.

text: Vulnerabilities in MEC applications may be used as an entry point for attacks aiming at exploiting the MEC applications; Edge VUL50 Vulnerabilities in MEC applications virtualisation environments, unauthorised access to data, elevation of privileges or denial of service. Application Server (EAS)

text: Physical and logical resources should not be shared with components which do not have the same criticality. This constraint requires the right level of isolation around the service to prevent regulation Virtualisation VUL51 Improper isolation of resources pollution to its own components and infrastructures. infrastructure; MEC host; MEC platform

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: Physical and environmental • improper physical and environmental security of edge computing facilities; VUL52 vulnerabilities of relevant MEC MEC host components • improper security monitoring of edge computing facilities;

text: • insecure service environment.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include:

text: • improper authentication policy, such as unauthenticated access to system functions, use of generic accounts; Vulnerable mechanisms for • insecure or insufficient authentication attributes, such as failure to protect accounts by at least LCM proxy; MEC VUL53 authentication and authorisation of one authentication attribute or active predefined authentication attributes; orchestrator MEC components • weak or missing password policy;

text: • insecure authentication mechanisms for management or maintenance of interfaces;

text: • insecure authorisation and access control mechanisms.

text: Relevant vulnerabilities include: • insufficient or inadequate logging of security events for MEC app and MEC host; MEC platform; MEC Insufficient or improper monitoring VUL54 host; MEC application; mechanisms of MEC components • logs not transferred to centralised storage; VIM/CISM

text: • improper protection of security event log files.

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text: D ANNEX: ATTACK TAXONOMY

text: ID Categories Attacks Attack scenario Impacts References

text: This category of attack occurs when the administrator adheres to objectionable operations over the VNFs. An attack on a single VNF installed in NFVI can compromise the entire infrastructure.

text: A malicious administrator manages to obtain confidential information about a user thanks to some badly implemented virtualisation procedures in an NFV context. Since the malicious administrator has root access to the virtualisation layer, by using a search operation he can extract the user ID, passwords and cryptographic keys from the memory dump, which in turn violates user privacy and data confidentiality. To execute this attack, the attacker first creates a backup copy of the VM drive and then uses open-source tools, such as kpartx and vgscan, to extract sensitive data from it.

text: Another attacker scenario is that the hypervisor or CIS administration role can be used to manage the VM or container and vSwitch environment. The administrator could use this environment to monitor or eavesdrop security critical information operating on a VM or container or passing between NFVs Attacks from within an Human-instigated Access ATT1 components. The administration role may eavesdrop unsecured traffic (e.g. unsecured SIP - session [50] NFV attacks breach initiation protocol) or create a memory dump of a running VM or container to obtain security critical or personal information, e.g. customer authentication credentials, which would allow them to log into the customer SIP account and fraudulently use their service or have access to compromise customer privacy.

text: Note: the risk posed by the hypervisor or CIS administrator role exists in all deployment scenarios. However, the risk is increased if this role is not under the direct control of the operator.

text: Impacts: As one of the objectionable operations, the administrator can extract and use the memory dump of a user’s VM or container to extract a user’s ID and password and TLS keys which is a direct breach of the user’s privacy.

text: Software components with NFV are vulnerable to different types of attacks. The security breaches brought to the NFVI by one software can spread out to other components and therefore make the entire environment vulnerable. Software NFV components may carry flaws in their design, but not Access specifically related to their code. Misconfigurations are typically exploited to perform such attacks. breach Attacks from within an Software flaw Another attack can be obtaining a privileged status by using return-oriented-programming. Denial of ATT2 [86], [52], [88] NFV attacks Impacts: service

text: A vendor with wrong intentions may provide weak security features in the software which makes the Integrity software vulnerable to attack and therefore puts the entire network to risk. This example will qualify for compromise both human-instigated and software vulnerability. It could be possible to bypass firewall restrictions or to take advantage of a buffer overflow to execute arbitrary code.

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text: Access breach

text: Attacks from within an Resource misuse Denial of ATT3 Misuse of shared resources (by user or VNF): resource misuse attacks e.g. RFA and FRC attacks [87] NFV attacks service

text: Integrity compromise

text: Vulnerabilities present in security standards can be exploited. Consequently, all the components supporting those standards are affected. Two examples are set out here below:

text: 1. Vulnerabilities in the 5G or 4G security standards: new vulnerabilities are revealed affecting both the operator infrastructure and end-devices (including mobiles, NB-IoT, laptop etc). As demonstrated in the paper New Vulnerabilities in 5G Networks , these vulnerabilities can be exploited in 4G base stations or in commercially available NB-IoT protocols using lowcost hardware and software platforms to mount battery draining, hijacking and bidding down attacks. Those attacks affect the range from gigabit high speed LTE devices to NB-IoT devices. Access breach Attacks from within an Security standard 94 95 ATT4 2. Vulnerabilities in the NIST Special Publication 800-90A and ISO 18031 standards : these [90], [91], [92] NFV subversion attacks Integrity standards contain algorithms for generating the random numbers used, for example, to generate keys for cryptographic systems. One of the algorithms contained within these compromise documents is a pseudorandom number generator called the dual elliptic curve deterministic random bit generator (Dual EC DRBG) that has long been known to admit a serious potential back door in the event that an attacker generates the standard algorithm parameters. Several cryptographic software vendors have implemented Dual EC in their products. For example, OpenSSL’s FIPS module includes Dual EC as an optional random number generator. The backdoor which used Dual_EC_DRBG as a CSPRNG would allow the attacker with knowledge of the trapdoor to decrypt, for example, TLS encryption or VPN traffic, read all traffic, and modify the data as needed.

text: Attack scenario due to the hybrid legacy or virtual LI architecture:

text: Compromise of legacy node: In this scenario, an attacker makes use of the VNFs or host OS or hypervisor or CIS or associated signalling within the NFV domain to attack legacy nodes which were otherwise previously secure. This could be as simple as the legacy nodes now sharing the same administration domains as VNFs such that the legacy node operations become more visible to MANO than was possible in the full legacy network. Legacy nodes are unlikely to implement many of the Access Attacks from within an mechanisms an LI VNFCI POI would utilise based on ETSI GS NFV-SEC 012. Therefore, NFV may breach ATT5 LI attacks [127] NFV considerably compromise the security by protecting the obscurity of legacy POIs. Furthermore, it may Integrity be relatively simple to monitor overt events in the NFV domain and then look for corresponding compromise SDN/NFV actions taken by legacy POIs in mixed networks. Furthermore, the physical firewalls and other protection mechanisms around the legacy nodes may be virtualised, considerably increasing the attack exposure surface to those nodes. It is also possible to consider a scenario where an attacker initiates an attack from within the legacy domain which is then allowed to route through VNFs (not directly impacting the VNFs), which then returns as a trusted message into the legacy domain which does result in an attack.

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text: They consist in blocking or disrupting the entire network and the operation of NFV components. These attacks do not aim at gaining control over the resource nor at exfiltrating data, but only affect its availability.

text: The major reason behind such attacks are:

text: 1) VNFs getting controlled remotely (by a third party),

text: 2) due to a completely external malicious attack in order to destroy the NFVI such as can be done with a DDOS. A VNF’s internal vulnerabilities also make it open to external attacks.

text: Impacts:

text: 1. A denial-of-service attack (DoS) can be attempted on the NFV infrastructure in order to make it run out of resources and therefore also shut down its service to some extent. During the DoS attack, one VNF can be targeted for the attack and be made to generate numerous [50], [77], [85], Attacks from outside Denial of ATT6 DDoS attacks amount of traffic to be sent to other VNFs running on the same host or on a different host. [86], [87], [52], an NFV The danger of DDoS could also affect untargeted services and tenants that are hosted on service [88] the same physical host.

text: 2. Such an attack can be performed from the hypervisor or CIS by using the management console (or a service controlling it) to shut down the targeted VM container.

text: 3. Network protocols can be used to flood the hypervisor or CIS and/or its execution environment using DDoS attacks. 4. A more discreet manner to proceed with such a denial of service is to reconfigure the virtual hardware environment to cause VM or container dysfunction (e.g. reducing allocated RAM) to reduce the footprint of the attack.

text: 5. The networking environment may be shared with other tenants of the NFV sharing the same virtualisation layer. The traffic introduced by the other tenants may cause increased risks including DoS on the NFVI.

text: The NFVI supports a virtual DNS and the NFV orchestrator can increase the number of DNS servers Attacks from outside DNS Amplification depending upon the number of queries. An attacker generates multiple DNS queries using IP spoofing Denial of ATT7 [50] an NFV attacks and as a response more virtual DNS are rolled out by the orchestrator. This can lead to a further service shutting down of the services of the NFV.

text: It is a malware injection attack on the hypervisor or CIS and its VMs or containers. A hypervisor or CIS allows multiple VMs or containers to communicate and integrate with each other, taking care to manage the virtualisation layer of the NFV system. A malware injection aims to affect the virtualisation Access layer in the infrastructure of NFV via altering its internal code. The degree as to how badly a malware breach attack affects the system varies, including slowing down the response time for the system. Attacks from outside Denial of ATT8 Injection attacks Malware injection attacks implemented on VMs or containers can also cause modification to the [69], [87] an NFV service permissions of the virtual service. It may lead to having the sensitive data of VNFs visible to other VNFs in unauthorised ways. Also, this attack could affect the NFV host OS and hypervisor or CIS, Integrity which may lead to dysfunction in the CPU, VMs or containers and in the memory of the system. compromise

text: An attacker (e.g. supplier that has installed some Trojan in its VNF supply to attack other co-hosted VNF) can break the confidentiality and integrity of a software (code + data) once it is launched.

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text: An attacker may spoof an OSS/BSS system. A malicious system posing as an OSS/BSS can disrupt the network by sending incorrect configuration requests to the NFV/MANO and SDN systems. If the attacker is able to spoof a system, it can mount a man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack, which might lead to tampering with data or sniffing out important information on the interface with MANO and NFV systems. Access Alternately, the attacker might just passively listen to the information (sniff) on an interface. In addition, breach the attacker may perform DoS attacks on the NFV/MANO and SDN systems. Attacks from outside Denial of ATT9 OSS/BSS attacks [100] an NFV An attacker can deny service to the OSS/BSS systems by using several techniques such as resource service exhaustion by sending multiple login requests or a high number of provisioning requests. Integrity An attacker may be able to sniff the credentials used by the OSS/BSS systems due to a weak compromise authentication or authorisation implementation to authenticate with the NFV or MANO. Data transfer in plaintext is vulnerable to sniffing, which can reveal subscribers’ personal information and secret network parameters.

text: Attack scenario due to the hybrid legacy-virtual LI architecture:

text: Compromise of virtualised node: In this scenario, an attacker makes use of a legacy LI node (POI or wider node functionality) or associated signalling to that node, in order to attack an otherwise secure VNF containing a vPOI. This could be as simple as capturing unencrypted or poorly secured messages Access sent to legacy nodes and then using these messages to perform attacks on the VNF. Since the VNF is Attacks from outside breach ATT10 LI attacks required to trust the legacy nodes and communicate with them using legacy protocols, the VNFs [127] an NFV becomes at risk of bid down, man-in-the-middle or plain text attacks on the messages or interfaces. Integrity Furthermore, an attacker, by studying the operation of a legacy node, may be able to identity inference compromise attacks against a VNF of the same type and manufacture (e.g. legacy CSCF vs VNF CSCF). It is also possible to consider a scenario where an attacker initiates an attack from within the NFV domain which is then allowed to route through legacy nodes (not directly impacting the legacy nodes), which then returns as a trusted message into the NFV domain which does result in an attack.

text: Hypervisor or CIS resource monopolisation attacks: the hypervisor or CIS resource monopolisation attacks consist of a malicious VM or container taking control of a hypervisor or CIS to gain exclusive access to these resources. This leads to the violation of the isolation of the hypervisor or CIS resource or to the theft of data from other VMs or containers.

text: VM or container hopping attacks: a VM or container hopping attack consists of a malicious VM or container that directly targets another VM or container from the virtualisation environment. Such attacks permit the tampering and the elevation of privilege in the virtualisation architecture. Access VM or container monitoring attacks: the attacks consist of a VM or container monitoring another VM or breach Attacks occurring Malicious container to collect information about that VM or container without compromising it. They can typically Denial of ATT11 between NFV VM/Container rely on passive monitoring of another VM container. These attacks are mainly conditioned by the [50], [88] service components attacks exploitation of side channels, and the co-residence of VMs or containers. Integrity VM or Container escape attacks: the VM or container escape attack aims at compromising the compromise hypervisor or CIS in order to access another VM or container or execute code in the physical host. It is very similar to VM or container hopping, and corresponds to the same threats, but relies on the hypervisor or CIS compromise to break the isolation. Once the attacker gains access to one of the VMs or containers, it uses this VM or container’s network connectivity to reach the hypervisor or CIS API and then attacks the hypervisor or CIS to cause great damage. The major supporting factor behind this type of attack is the improper isolation of hypervisor or CIS and VMs or containers.

text: Impacts:

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text: 1. These attacks may affect memory pages owned by other VMs or containers, to proceed to in-memory information leakage or even to build a hidden channel between both VMs or containers.

text: 2. These attacks may contribute to leaks of cryptography keys.

text: These attacks target the hypervisor or CIS of the virtualisation architecture. The threats related to these attacks affect the hypervisor or CIS itself, by tampering with it, repudiating the traceability of its behaviour, disclosing information about its configuration and the configuration of the VM or container, and elevating the privilege of a VM or container user to that of the hypervisor or CIS administrator. The VM or container introspection attack exploits a malicious hypervisor or CIS to analyse the Access behaviour of a VM or container and infer its internal state. breach Attacks occurring Malicious ATT12 between NFV hypervisor/CIS Integrity [88], [47] The inter-VM or container communication introspection attacks may also provide interesting information components attacks regarding the communications of the VM or container with other hosted VMs or containers through I/O compromise or networking subsystems that are handled by the hypervisor or CIS. This raises privacy issues related to the interception and introspection of communications.

text: If a type 2 solution or container is deployed then the virtual environment is subject to any vulnerability that might exist in the underlying OS. For example, a missed patch or update could expose the host OS, hypervisor CIS and VMs or containers to attack.

text: Attacks occurring The command and control channel is a privileged communication medium between the hypervisor or Access Command/control breach ATT13 between NFV CIS and a VM or container. This threat targets the hypervisor or CIS, through the repudiation of [88] channel attacks components malicious activities in a VM or container.

text: Hypervisors or CISs and host OSs are running at the top of a hardware layer. They are therefore constrained by the hardware layer, which is composed of devices with their own firmwares. These firmwares may carry their own flaws, providing the necessary material to an attacker to compromise them. The corresponding threats are tampering with hardware, the disclosure of information based on side channels, and the elevation of privileges to get control on the software components running over Access Attacks occurring the hardware. These attacks are emphasised by the hard constraints regarding the upgrade procedure breach ATT14 between NFV Hardware attacks of these firmwares. Such upgrades are typically limited by the degradation of services during the [88] components Integrity upgrade process, or by a lack of support from manufacturers. compromise The Spectre and Meltdown issues are substantial threats that have severe impacts on security. The vulnerabilities allow processes to read information in memory that should not be accessible to them. User processes can access information from other processes and the kernel, and in a virtualised environment they can also access information on the host and, potentially, other guests.

text: Attackers may find a way to compromise the communication between NFV and MANO. Privilege Access escalation is a common attack on the VIM, and, if successful, it can lead to partial control over the host. breach Attacks occurring Attacks on network functions and/or resources (e.g. spoofing, sniffing and denial of service) can also Denial of ATT15 between NFV Network attacks [86] take place. service components An attacker can compromise virtual firewalls to restrict firewall functionality while allowing sufficient Integrity access to carry out the attack. compromise

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text: An amplification attack in NFV could be realised by provisioning a rogue network element that requests new elements to be booted up with the same malicious configuration. A rogue element could also generate and amplify traffic, log data or any other type of data that require other network elements to act upon it. The goal of such an attack is to limit the ability of the network to cope with the current traffic load and to disrupt the network’s ability to provide the services intended.

text: Denial of This could introduce several threats such as tampering with security logs, expiry of used certificates or Attacks occurring service Time manipulation UEs getting out of sync with the network. ATT16 between NFV [110] attacks Integrity components If an attack manipulates the network timing source or VNF clock, the network can be compromised. compromise

text: An example of this attack could be manipulating the lawful intercept functionality, which may provide Access Attacks occurring the attacker with the ability to access this function at will through enabling unauthorised accounts or the breach between NFV LI attacks redirection of IP traffic. [127]

text: components Integrity A national memory stack segment (MSS) may be deployed in a foreign datacentre where local LEA compromise (law enforcement agency) legislation allows access to the security critical customer and LI information.

text: Attack scenario 1: Spoofing of the orchestration platform’s service requests may result in an attacker being able to generate service requests to cause DoS by:

text: • provisioning new instances in order to deplete the number of resources available to the NFV or SDN components; Access • retiring NFV instances or SDN elements that are in use by the operational network; breach Attacks occurring • changing the SDN configuration. Orchestration Denial of ATT18 between NFV [86], [6] attacks This risk could impact a single element or the whole mobile network. service components Attack scenario 2: Spoofing as an SDN controller, VIM or VNFM to send service management requests Integrity to the orchestration platform on the resource performance could cause the orchestration platform to compromise initiate changes on the infrastructure.

text: This exploit could be used by an attacker who wants to force the orchestration platform to move a NFV component to another datacentre where the attacker may have physical access or has compromised the virtualisation layer and wants to monitor customer traffic.

text: Compromised components could affect network performance and compromise the confidentiality, integrity and availability of network assets. Furthermore, compromised devices may provide malicious actors with persistent access to 5G networks and the capability to intercept data that routes through the devices. Compromised devices may infect connected computers, phones and other devices with Access malware and may have data rerouted, changed or deleted. breach Attacks occurring Untrusted companies that have significant international market share within telecommunication Supply chain Denial of ATT19 between NFV networks may introduce risks even if they do not have a large presence within EU networks. Therefore, [62] attacks service components even if the EU network were completely secure, data traveling overseas may pass through untrusted telecommunication networks and potentially be vulnerable to interception, manipulation, disruption, or Integrity destruction. compromise

text: This may result in anything from an attacker being able to install a malicious configuration and ultimately control the network element or function or, in the case of a damaged deployment, it could lead to limited or total failure of all the network elements that are scheduled to be updated.

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text: An untrusted host OS and hypervisor or CIS may have embedded vulnerabilities (for example embedded Trojan software or rooted OS), exposing all VMs or containers and associated NFVs to attack. An attacker may exploit these embedded vulnerabilities to allow them to compromise VMs or containers operating within the hypervisor or CIS.

text: As different virtualisation environments may provide different levels of security protection for the application layer, stand-alone testing of a VNF may not ensure that the desired level of assurance of the VNF remains the same when deployed in different virtualised scenarios. Furthermore, VNFs used in different service types (e.g. network slices) or different services (e.g. vertical services) may face requirements for security assurance that are different from the service layer. A VNF successfully tested in isolation may not provide the required level of assurance for a specific slice or service, for a given NFVI.

text: A third-party tenant has direct access to the SAN (storage area network) and any local storage used by NFVs within the datacentre. This privileged access could facilitate access to security critical or Access customer information, or a DoS attack. breach Attacks occurring When deployed by an operator who uses a third party host environment not under the operator’s Third party hosting Denial of ATT20 between NFV control, without appropriate protection, the sensitive information of a VNF could be compromised by the [61], [6] attacks service components third party. Integrity An attacker with physical access to the hardware environment may be able to tamper or remove the compromise TPM (trusted platform module), disabling the trusted computing platform function and facilitating other attacks, e.g. allowing an untrusted host OS and hypervisor or CIS to be installed.

text: Access Vulnerabilities of a PNF could be used as a starting point for an attack against VNFs, potentially taking breach Attacks occurring advantage of legacy security used by PNFs and not understood by VNFs. Mixed deployment Denial of ATT21 between NFV [6] attacks Vulnerabilities of a VNF could be used as a starting point to forward malicious messages to a PNF service components which has not been secured against attacks of that nature. Integrity compromise

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text: E ANNEX: BEST PRACTICES REGISTER

text: Measures/Best ID Description References practices

text: Below are three approaches to deploy virtual security functions (e.g. antivirus, firewall, IDS/IPS).

text: Security function embedded within the VM container: the advantage of this option is that the network security function is aware of the context of the VM or container. For example, the firewall is aware of any new port used by the network function and thus requires less configuration. The disadvantage is that the operator may not be able to choose or change the vendor of the security function, who is chosen by the provider of the network function.

text: Security function as a standalone VM/Container: the network security functions are standalone VMs or containers. This option provides the Security monitoring [1], [61], [47], BP-T1 operator with the flexibility to choose a vendor of security functions to protect particular network interfaces. However, such an architecture is exposed and filtering [25] to malicious changes of the network topology and other network layer risks.

text: Security function in the virtualisation layer: the network security agents are outside of the VMs or containers within the virtualisation layer. A single security function can protect all the VMs or containers managed by the virtualisation layer instead of having one security function per VM or container. The operator can easily change the vendor of the security function as the security function is independent of the VM or container. This option may, however, require more configuration compared with the first option where the security function is embedded within the VM or container.

text: Network interfaces should be locked down so that they only accept a restricted number of expected protocols.

text: A VNF Package is composed of several components such as, for example, VNFD, software images, scripts, etc. During the on-boarding of the VNF package, a validation of the package should be performed. The validation should be a procedure that verifies the integrity of the VNF package. A package is certified by performing acceptance testing and full functional testing against the VNF including configuration, management and service assurance.

text: It is easy to tamper with VNF images. It requires only a few seconds to insert some malware into a VNF image file while it is being uploaded to an image database or being transferred from an image database to a compute node. Luckily, VNF images can be cryptographically signed and verified during launch time. This can be achieved by setting up some signing authority and modifying the hypervisor or CIS configuration to verify an image’s [1], [13] [50], VNF Image validation BP-T2 signature before they are launched. [47], [25], and protection [133] The software package and the artefacts within the package of a VNF shall have their integrity protected by the vendor’s signature. The software package and the artefacts within the package of a VNF and the software catalogue holding its image should have their integrity protected after onboarding. The software package and the artefacts within the package of a VNF containing sensitive information must support the protection of confidentiality.

text: Software package and artefacts within the package of a VNF must be bound to a specific network after onboarding, such that unauthorised software cannot be instantiated even if it has a valid vendor certificate.

text: The orchestration and VNF management systems should have the ability to keep track of multiple versions, multiple environments, multiple instances Tracking VNF version BP-T3 and allow the service provider team to perform updates or upgrades with clear expectations of service continuity based on metadata information [13], [38] changes including component dependencies.

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text: Minimum baseline security controls and hardening measures should be configured for new VNF deployments. This can be done in many ways such BP-T4 VNF deployment as using pre-hardened golden images, deployment time configuration, etc. Such controls include fully implemented access control rules and ensuring [6], [25] that any unused ports, features, insecure protocols, or services are disabled.

text: The NFVO may only relocate or retire a VNF after backup and storage of critical data such as encryption keys or subscriber information to ensure this data is not lost during migration or restructuring of the network. This also applies when a request to relocate or retire a VNF comes from the EMS. VNF deletion or The NFVO may only relocate or retire a VNF after having validated that the security and affinity policies can be and will be applied upon BP-T5 reintroduction of the element either in the same or a new location. This validation must take into account both operator and regulatory requirements. [38], [122] relocation The NFVO may only relocate or retire a VNF after its operational state is no longer depended upon by other VNFs. In the event of a VNF being attacked or compromised it should be possible to isolate the VNF from the production environment and restore the VNF to a state prior to the attack. It should also be possible to take a snapshot of the affected VNF to allow for security investigation and analysis.

text: Secure key management must be implemented to manage all the steps of a key lifecycle: key generation using an appropriate level of entropy from a reliable source, secure key storage, key rotation and revocation, secure key destruction, etc. The use of tamper resistant hardware security modules for secure boot and secure execution of cryptographic algorithms should be considered. Specific security cryptographic mechanisms include bidirectional authentication, transmission encryption and integrity protection. 97 98 3GPP TS 33.501 offers a detailed explanation of the security architecture and procedures for 5G. ENISA lists several cryptographic best practices to accomplish this, including: • encrypt UE by default; • apply not-NULL ciphering for user and signalling data; • use a secure protocol on the network for both user and control plane data; BP-T6 Cryptography • use state-of-the-art mechanisms for transport protection and mutual authentication; [25], [133] • implement the required authentication specifications and consider secondary authentication; • ensure keys are properly protected and stored; • ensure use of current security protocols for TLS (TLS 1.2 and above) and appropriate key and certificate management practices; • use tamper-resistant hardware for storing or processing critical data. ETSI GR NFV-SEC 005 provides a guide to the use of public key infrastructures (PKI) for the purpose of distributing public key certificates (PKC) as applicable to the ETSI ISG NFV for the support of public key cryptography in authenticating, authorising and encrypting links between objects in NFV. ENISA also recommends establishing PKI infrastructure for secure admin access and protecting your network against external access, especially in a cloud environment.

text: Hypervisor or CIS introspection can be used to scrutinise software running inside VMs or containers to find abnormal activities. It acts as a host- Hypervisor/CIS based IDS that has access to the states of all VMs or containers, so that the root kit and boot kit inside VMs or containers cannot hide easily. Using [1], [50], [47],

text: protection [25] introspection capabilities, the hypervisor’s or CIS’s functionalities are enhanced, enabling it, among other things, to monitor network traffic, access files in storage, and to execute read memory. Hypervisor or CIS introspection APIs are powerful tools to perform deep VM or container analysis and

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text: potentially increase VM or container security. However, they can also be used as an exploit that makes it possible to break and bypass the isolation between VMs or containers and the hypervisor or CIS. Example: LibVMI is the library for hypervisor introspection for various platforms, implemented in C language with Python bindings. It gives the hypervisor the means to perform deep inspection of VMs (e.g. memory checking, vCPU register inspection, and recording trapping events). The hypervisor or CIS must enforce network security policies. This includes, but is not limited to, ensuring that; • VMs or containers are isolated from each other, • VMs or containers are prevented from accessing each other’s memory spaces, • keys used to encrypt memory are also under hypervisor or CIS control, • hypervisors or CISs are not allowed to write directly to memory, • hypervisors or CISs are not allowed to bypass normal memory access controls and security within the VM or container, • hypervisors or CISs are not allowed to change data within a VNF at run-time. Note: a Type 1 hypervisor is considered significantly more secure than a Type 2 'hosted' solution (where the hypervisor is installed on top of the host OS directly controlling the hardware and network adapters) as there are less attack services (OS and hypervisor). One best practice consists of designing a NFV orchestrator incorporating the security and trust requirements of the NFVI. The orchestration and management of security functions requires integration by enabling interaction among the security orchestrator, the VNFM, and the element management systems (EMS). This type of protection can be achieved by setting scaling boundaries in the VNFD or network service descriptor (NSD), for example, and having the NFVO enforce these restrictions to protect from attacks such as a DNS amplification attack. Operators must ensure that they use an out-of-band (OOB) management network that is not accessible from the internet so management interfaces are secured from remote access. If an operator allows for remote access into the OOB for employees and/or OEM support, the operator must ensure that they use a multi-factor authentication (MFA), at a minimum, for any type of VPN access. An MFA VPN combined with zero-trust greatly improves secure remote access to protect the 5GC Network. Secure management and administration of the NFVI and NFV-MANO is critical for the security of a virtualised network. The following describe the basic principles for such secure management. a) Administration of the NFVI is only available over mutually authenticated, encrypted and integrity protected channels or APIs. b) All channels or APIs are separated from each other and use separate credentials. Security Management [1], [50], [57], BP-T8 c) The number of privileged accounts for the NFVI is constrained to a minimal manageable number to meet the CSP’s needs. and Orchestration [61], [18] d) NFV-MANO and NFVI administrators do not have any privileged rights to other services within the CSP. e) NFV-MANO and NFVI administrators are only provided with the privileges and accesses required to carry out their role. f) NFV-MANO and NFVI administrators do not have access to workloads running within the virtualised environment. g) NFV-MANO and NFVI administration access is limited to best practice configuration methods (e.g. authorised API calls). h) Internal components within VNFs are not able to directly connect to entities or management functions outside of the network trust domain, except via interfaces that are explicitly part of the VNF security design. i) NFV-MANO and NFVI administration is automated wherever possible. j) Manual administration of the NFVI is by exception and raises a security alert. k) Functions that manage the administration and security of the NFVI (e.g. MANO) are physically separate and do not run on the same NFVI as the NFs they manage.

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text: l) Functions that support the administration and security of the NFVI are treated as security critical functions.

text: The remote attestation (RA) technique can be used to remotely verify the trust status of an NFV platform. ETSI suggests leveraging hardware security module (HSM), trusted platform module (TPM) and virtual TPM/HSM (vTPM/vHSM) to provide trusted protection for VNFs. These modules are used to shelter integrity measurements (i.e. hash values), cryptographic keys and certificates that are required to empower remote attestation of VNF components. Indeed, remote attestation guarantees the integrity of VNF instances at load time. Practical implementations of the remote attestation service include the open cloud integrity tool (openCIT), an open-source software hosted on GitHub.

text: It shall be possible to attest a VNF through the full attestation chain from the hardware layer through the virtualisation layer to the VNF layer.

text: Attestation of a platform’s integrity should be linked to the application layer and possible for other functions to query. If platform attestation fails, the VNF should not be allowed to run.

text: Attestation of the VNF should be performed prior to deployment or network integration and during operations.

text: In ETSI GR NFV-SEC 018, several use case scenarios are described that aim to establish specific trust between NFV stakeholders: [1], [50], [47], BP-T9 Remote attestation (1) measurement of VM during launch, [132] (2) protected VM launch on a trusted NFVI,

text: (3) measurement of VM during launch and while in use,

text: (4) remote attestation of secret storage,

text: (5) secure VM migration between two trusted NFVIs.

text: Other Examples of attestation solutions are Hytrust and OpenAttestation.

text: In the OpenAttestation example, the launch of a VM only occurs when the Openstack Controller gets the confirmation that the compute node is trustworthy from a so-called attestation server (AS) which performs the appraisal of the trusted compute pool that Openstack Controller wants to use for the VM.

text: (6) A software checksum (hash or signature) should be created by the vendor during NFV and a supporting NFVI (e.g. host OS, hypervisor or CIS, SDN Controllers) software compilation that can be validated with a corresponding checksum created during any testing and validation process operated by the operator or a third party. Software compliance BP-T10 and integrity (7) TEE is an important enabler for that goal. Tamper-proofing techniques enable the preservation of software integrity by causing an altered [1], [63] preservation software to fail.

text: (8) The concept of trusted execution and the associated technologies (e.g. Intel SGX enclave) that make certain that even a malicious host OS or operator cannot tamper or inspect any managed payload memory space.

text: To prevent a VM or container from impacting other VMs, containers or hosts, it is a best practice to separate VM or container traffic and management traffic. This will prevent attacks by VMs or containers tearing into the management infrastructure. It is also a good idea to separate the VLAN traffic into groups and disable all other VLANs that are not in use. Likewise, VMs or containers of similar functionalities can be grouped into specific zones and their traffic should be isolated. Each zone can be protected using access control policies and a dedicated firewall based on security level it Security segmentation [1], [50], [75], needs. One example of such zones is a demilitarised zone (DMZ). Due to differing security requirements, a separate virtual environment using BP-T11 and isolation between [78], [79], separate clusters should be setup for VNFs and MANO. network functions [47], [25], [17] Physical and/or logical separation shall be applied to keep sensitive control plane sub-components within a VNF (e.g. key material or billing data) away from lower security sub-functions or other general user plane traffic handling sub-functions.

text: Best practices include:

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text: (1) Linux kernel security: in virtualised platforms, the kernel of the host systems is a highly important component that provides isolation between the applications. The SELinux module, developed by the National Security Agency (NSA), is implemented in the kernel and provides robust isolation between the tenants when virtualisation technology is used over the host. Secure virtualisation (sVirt) is a new form of SELinux, developed to integrate mandatory access control security with Linux based hypervisors. sVirt provides isolation between VM processes and data files. Beyond these tools, other kernel hardening tools can be useful to secure the Linux kernel. A notable example is hidepd, which can be used to prevent unauthorised users from seeing the process information of other users. Another example is GRSecurity, which provides protection against attacks on corrupted memory.

text: (2) Best practices are to avoid co-hosting, on the same hardware, VNFs that have very different levels of sensitivity or very different levels of vulnerability to influence by an attacker.

text: (3) The trust domains of network functions should be identified. Each trust domain should be managed separately. Security policies for each trust domain should be managed independently.

text: (4) Delegated administrator roles must be used, with roles which could give a user or administrator the ability to inspect the memory of functions only in exceptional circumstances.

text: (5) Confidentiality protection should be provided to protect information traveling between memory locations in a single or multiple logical memory block.

text: Using trusted platform module (TPM) as a hardware root of trust, the measurement of system sensitive components such as platform firmware, BIOS, bootloader, OS kernel, and other system components can be securely stored and verified. The platform measurement can only be taken when BP-T12 Secure boot integrity [50], [79], [25] the system is reset or rebooted; there is no way to write the new platform measurement in TPM during the system run-time. The validation of the platform measurements can be performed by TPM’s launch control policy (LCP) or through the remote attestation server.

text: For the RAN operator, theft of sensitive or private data may result in churn, fines and loss of business due to compromised business reputation or regulatory violation. The operator is responsible for ensuring that data in transit, at rest and in use are protected according to the requirements of the regulatory agency and use case using the following best industry practices:

text: Data at rest

text: Sensitive information of a VNF shall be protected during its lifecycle process to avoid leakage of the information to other VNFs reusing the storage resource.

text: Data should be backed up, while sensitive data, such as security logs, should be encrypted before storage in the persistent volume. Access control and monitoring data access and usage are other essential functions for protecting data. A privacy impact assessment (PIA) for personally identifiable information (PII) should be performed to identify and mitigate privacy risks to data assets.

text: When VNF moves from one host to another or when VNF is terminated, the system should ensure that resources, privacy sensitive data, and/or keys Data protection and are fully cleared. [47], [25],

text: privacy [113] Security policy which restricts where certain types of data can reside should be defined and implemented by CSPs.

text: Data in transit

text: Data must be encrypted, and its integrity protected, when it flows between the different parts of the VNFs and, externally, between NFV nodes to defend against internal and external attacks. 3GPP 33.501 stipulates mutual authentication with X.509 certificates. In addition, the following security protocols among others should be used:

text: • air interface: 5G provides encryption and integrity protection of control signalling and encryption and optional integrity of user data;

text: • control plane: DTLS 1.2;

text: • management plane: Mutual TLS using version 1.2 and above.

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text: Data-in-use

text: Depending on the existing protection of the cloud infrastructure, additional protection of data in use could be needed. For instance, the use of trusted execution environments (TEE) has the potential to increase the security of crypto and key-management operations and protect data in use.

text: The best practice to secure the VNF volumes is by encrypting them and storing the cryptographic keys at safe locations. TPM or HSM modules can be used to securely store these keys. In addition, the hypervisor or CIS should be configured to securely wipe out the virtual volume disks in the event a VNF is crashed or intentionally destroyed to prevent it from unauthorised access. VM or container swapping is a memory management Encrypting VNF technique used to move memory segments from the main memory to disk, which is used as a secondary memory in order to increase system [50], [25],

text: volume/swap areas performance in case the system runs out of memory. These transferred memory segments can contain sensitive information such as passwords and [133] certificates. They can be stored on the disk and remain persistent even after system reboot. This enables an attack scenario whereby a VM or container swap is copied and investigated to retrieve any useful information. One way to avoid this kind of attack is to encrypt VM or container swap areas. Linux based tools such as dm-crypt can be used for this purpose.

text: To provide a trusted hardware platform, the hardware (blade servers) should support Intel TXT, SGX, AMD SEV or ARM Trustzone silicon-based security functionality implemented with a TPM that stores measurements of the entire hypervisor or CIS stack and boot process.

text: This measure should be applied to:

text: • blade clusters supporting VNF that support security critical functions; for example, lawful interception, customer access credential (HSS), Trusted computing security key management (AuC) or that have external traffic interfaces directly accessed by third parties or customers (Internet, GRX); BP-T15 [25] technologies • all other MANO and VNF blade clusters to improve base platform security and reduce the complexity of affinity rules and hardware cluster of differing security trust levels.

text: A mechanism should be in place to identify any attempt to physically remove the TPM from a system board. If physical tampering has been identified the blade server should be considered compromised and no longer be used to support VNFs. For example, on HP blades any attempt to remove an installed TPM from the system board breaks or disfigures the TPM security rivet.

text: If hardware is provided by a third party cloud provider, then a dedicated cluster supporting only the operator’s VNFs should be provided to ensure physical, not logical, segregation from other tenants. It is also recommended that separate dedicated hardware is used to provide independent NFV management (MANO) and service clusters (NFV). In addition, separated clusters should be used to provide MANO and NFVI. BP-T16 Hardware security [113] The use of HW secure enclave technologies, such as AMD SEV and Intel TDX provide stronger tenant isolation from the cloud provider. The general commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware may have varying levels of security functionality, such as hardware rooted secure storage, unique hardware identities, secure boot with software integrity check, and trusted execution environment (TEE), built-in depending on the manufacturer. TEE refers to a technique of storing or running code in a protected memory area where no other applications or the host have access. An example is secure enclaves that can be used as a hardware root-of-trust for secure storage of secrets and running sensitive code. A HSM or TPM can be used to provide hardware rooted protection of keys.

text: All the NFV, SDN and MANO elements should submit security events (e.g. authentication, authorisation and accounting, login attempts, administration functions and configurations) to a centralised platform, which shall monitor and analyse in real time the messages for possible Centralised log attempts at intrusion. It is also recommended that all the elements make use of the same trust time synchronising source (e.g. NTP server) to BP-T17 support accurate correlation of events across the network. [79], [80], [25] auditing It is also recommended that all audit logs are transferred to a log management platform outside the NFV to maintain their integrity and remove the risk of tampering.

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text: It is recommended that: • each hypervisor or CIS has a single ‘root’ admin account that is used for local administration and to connect the host to VIM; • to avoid sharing this common ‘root’ account, across the whole NFVI, at least one local named user account be created and assigned full admin privileges, and this account should be the primary account for operating the hypervisor or CIS; Use and ownership of • strong access controls, account privileges and security logging are enabled; [79], [6], [47], BP-T18 ‘root’ administration [25] credentials • the hypervisor or CIS is configured to support multiple administration roles, and as a minimum there must be an admin role (highest privilege) and a separate operational role with minimal privileges to complete normal operational support; • delegated administrator roles be used, with the global administrator role only being used in exceptional cases, e.g. to add permissions for other high-level administrators; • all administration login attempts and critical operations must be logged and audited.

text: Protection of VNFs

text: It should be possible to deploy a VNF to a host that provides specific security resources (e.g. HMEE, secure compute, secure memory) in order to bind a VNF to a specific host or group of hosts. Binding should be verified by secure hardware backed attestation of the health and security of the host. Controls should be verified and enforced at boot time and each time a function is migrated. The system should manage (e.g. assign or log bindings) key storage and confidential data in a manner that provides protection against data compromise. Sensitive data should only be decrypted or handled in an unencrypted format in VNFs on trusted and well-known hosts. It must be possible to control whether untrusted or less trusted VNFs are allowed to run on the same host as VNFs in a higher trust domain. It must be possible to further restrict VNFs on a single host depending on whether they handle decrypted sensitive data. The system should prevent and detect unauthorised or unintended data manipulation and leakage (e.g. modification of VNF images, instantiating parallel VM(s) or container(s) on the same physical CPU). [6], [47], [25], BP-T19 VNF protection Securing internal VNF communication [123], [17] Where a NFV is composed on multiple VNFs the vendor should demonstrate how it protects the internal communication of its NFV, as it transits between VMs or containers.

text: Protection of stored data

text: NFV vendors should ensure that any security critical (including LI), customer privacy or confidentiality related information is stored securely on any shared or local storage (e.g. SAN, SSD). Vendors should be able to clearly state the security mechanisms used to protect this data using industry standard best practice (e.g. encryption).

text: Protection of LI data and functionality

text: NFV vendors should demonstrate how they are protecting LI functionality to ensure that it cannot be compromised or weakened by running their VNF in the NFV environment. It is recommended that vendors are asked to clearly state how they are compliant in protecting sensitive LI data and interfaces and to specify whether there are any specific deployment requirements to allow their VNF to operate in a multi-vendor virtualised environment and ensure that the integrity of their security mechanisms is maintained.

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text: Local storage protection

text: If local blade storage is supported, then it should not store sensitive information such that its theft or removal would enable an attacker to gain a copy of the stored data.

text: Mutual authentication between VMs or containers and SAN

text: Mutual authentication should be implemented between each VM or container and its associated SAN storage using CHAP (e.g. DH-CHAP, FCPAP).

text: SAN data protection in transit

text: The operator should consider protecting sensitive data in transit between NFV and SAN using encapsulated security payload (ESP), as specified by Local or removable the fibre channel protocol (FC-SP) or equivalent. [6], [47], [25], BP-T20 blade storage – SAN SAN physical blade interface [114] protection It is recommended that a separate physical interface module is used on each blade or rack mounted server for connectivity to the SAN. It is not recommended for any SAN connectivity to share common IP interface with other operational traffic.

text: SAN storage protection

text: The SAN storage shall protect against tampering and any ability to create unauthorised local copies of any of the stored data. In the event of tampering or unauthorised copying, an alarm and log event should be generated recording what data has been copied and which user initiated the action. Note: it is expected that the SAN security (including backup management) will be addressed through existing IT security controls for the operation, access, backup and availability of the SAN.

text: Topology hiding

text: All internal interfaces between VNF elements, supporting MANO platforms and IT elements (mediation, provisioning) that are not required to publicly communicate outside the operators network, should use private IP addresses. It is recommended that all external interfaces are NAT through a firewalling function to provide additional protection of the identity of the elements within the VNFI.

text: VNF network security profile

text: Each VNF supporting VNFC functions should have a predefined network security profile describing its requirements for vNICs, ports, port group, VLANs and the requirement for internal VXLAN connections. The security profile shall also define the vNIC firewall rules related to protocols (port numbers) that need to be supported on each VLAN or VXLAN BP-T21 Network security connection. It is expected that vendors will provide a security profile for their applications, which will have to be aligned with the operators’ zoning [6], [47], [25] guidelines. Note: there should never be a requirement for all ports to be open, particularly on external standard based interfaces (e.g. GTP).

text: Deploy NFVs with separate dedicated interfaces

text: Ideally, separate physical interfaces should be implemented to maintain different traffic segregation in line with security zoning and X.805 principles. However, if this is not supported by a vendor then a separate logical interface and VLAN must be used to maintain security zoning.

text: Production and O&M traffic separation

text: O&M interfaces should not share the same physical NIC, vNIC, distributed port group (DPG) or port group with other production traffic types (e.g. BSS, User Plane or Signalling).

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text: Connectivity from management to production cluster

text: Any connectivity between the operation and management (MANO) cluster and the production cluster should pass through a firewall. If a virtual firewall is implemented, it should be implemented within the management cluster. Note: it is expected that MANO systems would not share the same hypervisor or CIS environment as production NFV elements.

text: Network resource pools

text: To prevent a VM or container causing a DoS by monopolising system and network resources, it is recommended that network resource pools should be configured.

text: Internal virtual switching control

text: The internal hypervisor or CIS controlled virtual IP network (vSwitch/VDS) should be controlled to ensure a policy of positive enabling and must not support default connectivity or ‘any to any’ functionality.

text: Virtual network monitoring

text: In some deployments, internal network monitoring functions can be installed on the virtualisation layer. If these are installed, the functions must be restricted to the administrator only and should not provide a mechanism for compromising the security of the hypervisor or CIS or other VMs or containers. Additionally, any operation of this type of monitoring functionality should generate an alarm to the VIM and be recorded in the audit logs.

text: VLAN and VXLAN zoning

text: A comprehensive set of common VLAN and VXLANs must be created across each NFVi to ensure traffic separation and security zoning requirements. Note: VLAN and VXLAN zoning should ensure that clear vendor separation is maintained. Only VLAN and VXLANs necessary to support VNFs hosted on a cluster should be configured on the ‘leaf’ and ‘spine’ switching layers. The VLAN IP infrastructure should follow existing segmentation and zoning rules with the use of firewalls or other security controls to provide protection between zones. Existing hardware firewall appliances can continue to be used to provide boundary protection when connecting to untrusted or semi-trusted networks (e.g. internet or GRX). However, it is recognised that virtualised security appliances may be used in the future.

text: Use of VPNs

text: Where possible, VPNs should be created between VNFs and both internal and external non-VNF environments, e.g. interconnectivity between P-GW and Mediation for EDR transfer or HLR/HSS provisioning interfaces with the BSS Provisioning platform.

text: Dedicated network infrastructure

text: If a third party XaaS provider is being used then it is recommended that dedicated local ‘leaf’ switching infrastructure supporting only the operator VNFs is provided to ensure segregation from other tenants. Additionally, it is also recommended that dedicated spine switches be provided also but this may not always be practical.

text: Protect all OAM traffic

text: Link security can be provided through the use of native traffic encryption such as HTTPS, SFTP, SMNP v3 or using TLS or IPsec tunnelling protocols. Note: it is recommended this control should be applied in addition to any security protection provided if, for example, OAM traffic is carried over an IPsec tunnel.

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text: The following controls apply if using a message bus technology for communication between SDN elements. However, it is expected this technology will be widely used in 5G architectures.

text: • A strong mechanism to authenticate the integrity of messages must be deployed between the ‘publisher’ and ‘producer’ over the message bus.

text: No messages should be accepted or processed by the message broker or ‘consumer’ systems from unknown, ‘fake’ or unauthenticated users.

text: It is recommended to that communications be secured using TLS (TLS 1.2 and above) security or certificates where supported (e.g. Kafka),.

text: • The message bus should be monitored for any unauthenticated messages or ‘fake’ or default usernames and a security alarm raised for investigation.

text: • If an SDN is deployed to support the NFVi then it is recommended that security functionality is deployed that identifies potential attacks on any SDN elements. Any security functionality should provide automated alarms and the ability to change the network or element configuration to mitigate the attack.

text: For example: SDN security BP-T22 [6], [97], [121] management o DoS attacks on SDN elements (specifically, NEs and SDN Controllers);

text: o Access control failures or attempts to use functions or services where the user does not have the correct privileges.

text: • A high availability architecture should be implemented for key SDN components (e.g. SDN Controllers) to ensure operational service is maintained. The design should include primary and secondary IP links with, where possible, diverse routing to allow for single point of network failure.

text: • It is recommended, in order to maintain operational integrity, that any changes to network, service and virtual environments are restricted to the orchestrator. Therefore, the SDN Controller and the VNFM and VIM should have additional controls applied to them to restrict such access for normal operation. Restricting the SDN Controller and the VNFM and VIM will prevent the application of rules and changes that may break policy and rules during deployment of service templates.

text: • For operational emergencies a high-level administration account should be created. However such an account must not be available to support engineers or used during normal operations. The credentials should be stored safely and be maintained by operations management. Ideally, these should be stored in a safe physical location such as a safe with monitored and recorded access. • The orchestration layer and SDN must be architected so that SDN networks and NFV environments are not operationally dependent on the orchestration or MANO layer to maintain operating services under circumstances that may render the orchestration platform unavailable.

text: The MANO components should support a high-level of role granularity to ensure appropriate levels of privilege can be assigned to all users to protect key processes and the integrity of data.

text: Ideally, all OAM access should be controlled through a centralised single sign-on or PAM solution with all access (success and failure) recorded in the audit log mechanism. Multi-factor authentication should be used to log into administrator accounts. [6], [47], MANO access control BP-T23 [123], [134], and management All administration and management should only be permitted from known, attested devices and multi-factor authentication should be enforced. [135] In ETSI GS NFV-SEC 022, ETSI defines an access token mechanism for the authorisation of access for NFV-MANO APIs and the associated procedure for the verification of the access token. One solution defined to handle these authorisations for API request and notification is the use of OAuth 2.0 protocol as defined by IETF RFC 6749 . The confidentiality and data integrity of all messages must be ensured, e.g. by using a transport-layer mechanism, such as TLS (TLS 1.2 and above), on each interface. The authorisation server database used to authenticate the user

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text: and store associated user credentials, access tokens and refresh tokens must be stored in a tamper resistant location (e.g. HSM). See ETSI GS NFV-SOL 013 and ETSI GS NFV-SEC 022 for technical details.

text: The connectivity between the VIM and the virtualisation layer should support a secure access protocol (e.g. IPSec, TLS) to protect against the eavesdropping of password information. It is also recommended that the secure access should support mutual authentication before allowing any O&M connectivity. VIM connectivity to BP-T24 [6], [25], [133] virtualisation layer Additionally, it is advised that any vendor defaults (e.g. self-signed certificates) be removed and replaced with operator generated certificates.

text: Each operator should develop a certificate policy in accordance with their regional and national requirements as described in ETSI GR NFV-SEC 005.

text: Recovery mechanisms in NFV must ensure the following:

text: • The NFVI must be restored completely, with all configurations and settings adjusted correctly. This includes controller nodes pointing to the right set of components, settings reloaded with correct parameters, and full inter-operability restored. Of particular importance is restoring the interoperation between NFV, SDN, and MANO systems, in an automated way, without the need for human intervention to reconfigure these systems to become functional again.

text: • VNFs must be fully restored. This includes reloading virtual machines, containers and network services and setting the last state in place Recovery and correctly. [49], [38],

text: reinstallation [122] • In the event of a suspected compromised of a hypervisor or CIS, or a VM or container it should be possible to overwrite a hypervisor or CIS installation or individual VM or container with minimal need for platform re-configuration.

text: • Any reload mechanism should be securely controlled and managed remotely by the VIM, or locally using secure access through the LMT, and also include verification of hardware integrity (e.g. boot disc, UEFI).

text: • When instantiating a new VM or container instance it is recommended that a different guest operating system ‘root’ administration credentials or security keys (IPSec, TLS) should be used for each instance.

text: The VIM should be configured to ensure that VMs or containers of differing trust levels are not deployed on the same physical host or blade and that VMs or containers requiring a ‘hardware root of trust’ cannot be installed on a physical host or blade that does not fully support trusted boot (e.g. Deploying VMs/containers of Intel-TXT) and TPM. [6], [25], [123]

text: differing trust levels For example, a VNF that requires a ‘trusted computing’ environment to support LI functions should only be installed on a cluster than can support this level of security.

text: A mutual authentication mechanism should exist between the NFVO, VIM and EMS platforms to provide a level of trust and to ensure only the authorised NFVO can make requests to the VIM and EMS platforms and vice versa.

text: The NFVO should provide internal workflow rules to prevent accidental changes to the NFVi and NFV services that could have an impact on service delivery. NFVO security A mechanism should exist to provide configuration roll-back in the event of any unauthorised or accidental service changes. [6], [38],

text: management [122], [123] The NFVO should create and maintain a comprehensive audit log of all service changes including the identity of the user making each change.

text: The NFVO should implement robust transaction management for any NFV management for supporting NFVi changes to ensure that the opportunity for configuration integrity errors across the orchestration controlled elements and service inventory is eliminated.

text: Best practice for provisioning platform controls for configuration roll-back and failure alarming must be implemented.

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text: The VNFs should synchronise with trusted time servers such as a GPS or an atomic clock. In 5G networks, high precision time synchronisation within microseconds will be required. 5G will not only provide personal mobile service, but also massive machine type communications (MTC) and services where latency and reliability are critical. These critical services require trusted and protected time sources.

text: ETSI GR NFV-SEC 016 (Draft specification - work in progress) is a study on how the location of sensitive VNFs (e.g. LI functions, VNFs handling BP-T28 Trusted time source data with restrictions on the location where data protection is handled and network security functions) can be attested. The study considers using [47], [136] trusted locstamp and timestamp information derived from global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), such as Galileo. The study also considers other binding solutions for physical location. The report outlines several solutions for timestamp-time synchronisation and distribution (e.g. White Rabbit Network, IEEE® 1588-2019, based on trusted GNSS/ LEOs), for timestamp datacentre time protocol (DTP) and for locstamp (e.g. based on binding a trusted hardware‘s ID with the location of a vertical hierarchy, indoor positioning such as RFID tagging and trusted GNSS positioning).

text: Third party hosting environments that support VNFs should meet 3GPP virtualisation security requirements to enable operators to meet legal or rd Secure 3 party regulatory requirements. BP-T29 [47] hosting environments The system should be able to monitor the attestation of third party hosting environments.

text: Recovery

text: The system should be deployed in such a way as to provide isolation and redundancy to increase the resiliency and defence against a single point of failure. MANO functions should include internal health checks to detect potential intrusion and take protective action.

text: There are a variety of ways operators should consider redundancy. Below are three ways the operator should be thinking about redundancy when it comes to its recovery plan.

text: • Network redundancy: network redundancy is the process of adding additional instances of network devices and lines of communication to help ensure network availability and decrease the risk of failure along the critical data path. Having redundancy by providing additional pathways through your network via redundant routers or switches would ensure minimal downtime and complete continuity of NFV services.

text: • Power redundancy: backup power supply (a generator, for instance) that specifically keeps critical NFV hardware running in colocation facilities. Redundancy and BP-T30 [47] backup • Geographic redundancy: geographic redundancy is important for how sensitive data is backed up. Having a redundant backup in an entirely different location will allow quicker recovery with little downtime.

text: • The recovery plan should already identify a fail-over location for the NFV system in the event that the current location is inoperable.

text: Backup

text: Backups is the process of creating and storing copies of NFV data to protect against data loss. A backup involves duplicating important data like VNF code and data, configurations, cryptographic materials, network configurations, audit logs or anything that the NFV system needs to stay operational.

text: Regardless of the backup solution chosen, offsite backups are a must across all industries. Operators are required to store backups in a secure location, preferably an off-site facility, such as an alternate or backup site.

text: Having both backups and redundancy contributes to the NFV system running smoothly. Backups make sure that if something is lost, corrupted or stolen then a copy of the sensitive NFV data is available. Redundancy makes sure that if something fails, the NFV system is able to work regardless of the problem.

text: Appropriate restrictions on container placement and on the use of container caching should include: Specific container BP-T31 • user handling containers relative to network management containers within a VNF; [47] security controls • separation of containers belonging to different NFs on different physical servers;

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text: • special handling of containers implementing interfaces between different trust domains (intra-VNF and inter-VNF).

text: The virtualisation layer must provide capabilities to limit the impact on co-hosted containers caused by a rogue container escaping its isolation. One of the commonly practiced security controls is to enforce strict resource limits on container usage, which helps in preventing resource starvation due to an attack by a rogue container.

text: The virtualisation layer must enforce the principle of ‘least privilege’ which ensures that no containers run with a privilege higher than what is actually required.

text: The VNF images shall not be packaged with embedded secrets such as passwords or credentials, or any other critical configuration data.

text: The contrasting attributes of the legacy and virtualised infrastructures should be considered from an overall management perspective. This will be particularly important during the migration phase while both types of infrastructure are running in parallel. The OSS/BSS would, therefore, need to be adapted for near-real time operation and be able to support a hybrid network across SDN/NFV and non-SDN, non-NFV domains.

text: OSS systems should be consistent with the ETSI NFV architectural framework [7] and support the Os-Ma interface between the traditional OSS/BSS and the NFV management and orchestration (MANO) framework. OSS/BSS systems should delegate fine-grained management of the NFV Infrastructure and the specific VNFs to the VIM and the VNFM, which in turn are orchestrated by the NFV orchestrator (NFVO). Thus, the OSS/BSS will be responsible for the high level configuration of the infrastructure and network functions, but the NFV MANO framework will manage the [99], [100], BP-T32 OSS/BSS protection 105 dynamic aspects of infrastructure and services . [101]

text: The integration with the SDN controller and applications will follow a similar approach. The OSS will manage the configuration of the SDN data plane, configure and set policies for the SDN controller and control SLAs for SDN applications, but the dynamic control of the SDN forwarding plane 106 107 will be managed by the SDN controller and the SDN control to data-path interface (CDPI) .

text: Operators moving to deploy virtualised network architectures based on SDN and NFV are likely to evolve the OSS/BSS systems in stages. Existing operators have a significant installed base and it is unrealistic to replace all existing infrastructure. The new capability will be deployed first where it brings the most value or where the legacy network requires upgrades anyway .

text: General recommendations involve:

text: • Dialogue between governments and 5G stakeholders to define clear, modular and transparent LI; • Efficient LI implementation through regulatory consistency, adoption of existing international technical standards (e.g. 3GPP, ETSI), and centralised, multi-country LI solutions; [102], [103], BP-T33 LI capabilities • LI law and regulation that is clear, transparent and judiciously implemented. [127] The following provides a brief checklist of security measures that 5G stakeholders should consider.

text: • Passwords and authentication: LI operations should be managed by the principle of least privilege (POLP), which limits each user to the minimum access privileges needed to perform his or her job. Access controls for the users should use two-factor authentication.

text: • Encryption: all LI data should be transmitted, both within the network and on the external delivery interface, with strong encryption.

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text: • Host hardening: the LI solution device(s) should be equipped with a robust host intrusion detection system to guard against unauthorised users. • Network hardening: the network should contain properly-configured firewalls and use routing methods to keep the LI functionality and data segregated from all other network activity. • Network monitoring: a network monitoring system, including a network intrusion prevention system and a network intrusion detection system, enables you to see which users enter and exit the network and when. The system also monitors uptime and downtime on different devices and provides visibility into broadband utilisation and link status. • Dedicated solution: the LI solution should be dedicated to LI purposes only. Trying to leverage the LI device for commercial uses such as traffic monitoring may expose the equipment to unauthorised use or operational risks. • Potential breach reporting: any compromise or potential compromise of an LI must be reported to law enforcement. • Testing: once the LI solution is installed, it must be tested. The communication features to be tested will vary depending on the type of network (e.g. broadband, wireless, VoIP) and the communication features offered on the given network. • Periodic testing: communication networks evolve over time. A network change may disable or impair the workings of the LI solution. For this reason the network operator should schedule periodic testing of the solution. • Software maintenance: like most forms of software, an LI solution requires maintenance. Any LI licensing agreement should arrange for patches, updates and upgrades as needed. Specifically, all security patches and updates for all LI platforms must be installed and kept current. • Penetration testing: in a penetration test, an external entity searches for cyber vulnerabilities in the LI solution and tries to ‘hack’ into it. • Security policy: the LI security policy should be included in the operator’s written network security policy, which should implement industry standards such as ISO 27001, NIST SP 800 series, etc. Additional security controls are needed on the user plane as follows: • to protect NFV components from attacks sourced from the public internet and cloud; • to protect the network from attacks sourced from internally attached NFV components; BP-T34 User plane security • to protect the NFVI from attacks sourced from internally attached components and the internet. [113] Inline detection and mitigation functions in the network can be used at the internet edge to prevent volumetric DDoS attacks from the internet, including TCP SYN floods, UDP floods, and DNS floods, which can attack the availability of the network or service. Threat detection or prevention and response using IDS/IPS should also be used to effectively defend against or prevent malware and ransomware infections on NFVI and network functions. To address the issue of inadequate isolation, MEC can include network segmentation, resource separation, data segregation, software and network attestation, etc. The hardening of MEC needs to ensure that all the default configurations (including OS software, firmware, and applications) are appropriately set and, further, that these settings can be verified against a reference. Countermeasures such as the filtering of packets heading for the target site BP-T35 MEC security under attack, restriction of the communication port used for DoS/DDoS attacks, and the reduction or suspension of the operations of target [126] telecommunications facilities need to be considered. A regular security testing programme or certification of MEC components is required as part of a secure value chain. Control measures to ensure the security of physically isolated areas of MEC components include earthquake-proofing, automatic fire control equipment, monitoring by a remote office to detect facility failures, physically secure perimeters, supporting automatic alert function, etc. The physical

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text: security may not be fully guaranteed in a MEC environment and critical MEC components (e.g. security end points and crypto functions) need to be implemented in HMEEs (hardware mediated execution environments) e.g. Intel SGX or ARM TrustZone.

text: SBI (service-based interface) of MEC components should provide adequate protection for access and data in transit. The confidentiality and data integrity of all messages should be ensured by using TLS on each interface. Appropriate security controls are required for protecting sensitive data during storage, processing and transfer by MEC applications. The MEC platform should authenticate all MEC application instances and only provide them with the information for which the application is authorised. OAuth 2.0 based on X.509 client certificates are used for authorisation of access to RESTful MEC service APIs as defined by ETSI ISG MEC. In the case of service-producing applications defined by third parties, other mechanisms such as standalone use of JWT (JSON web token) can be used to secure related APIs.

text: In addition, since MEC is based on virtualised infrastructure, it needs to include real-time security management based on NFV specifications (see ETSI GS NFV-SEC 013 [38]). Especially when deploying MEC in NFV environments, MEC should be considered as part of a whole system real-time security monitoring and management strategy. Appropriate mechanisms for the collection and processing of security events should be in place, where the log functions should upload log files securely to a central location or to an external system. Secure transport protocols should be used. Access to the security event log should be controlled to allow only privileged users to have access to the log files. Critical event logs must be enhanced with mechanisms to enable independent third parties to audit them, preserving their arrow of time and their links to the identities of the elements involved. As part of regulatory issues, the European regulation (NIS-Directive) expects isolation of physical and logical components of critical services from services with low criticality. The MEC system needs to support regulatory requirements for lawful interception and retained data 109 110 111 based on ETSI and 3GPP standards (e.g. in ETSI TS 101 331 , ETSI TS 102 656 and 3GPP TS 33.126 ).

text: Treat 5G infrastructure as an untrusted environment and explicitly authenticate and authorise interactions between all assets in all areas - both inside and outside the network - prior to allowing access. Secure and limit interactions to the minimum necessary, and continuously monitor asset security posture, adjusting access rights accordingly.

text: Zero trust represents an overarching access security model that deliberately avoids assuming implicit trust between elements in a network. This is particularly important in 5G as various external stakeholders may need to access infrastructure components or services for management, maintenance or monitoring purposes. For example, enterprise users may need to select access to 5G slice management services. Third party vendors may need access to select components for configuration or troubleshooting. Properly implemented, zero trust can provide appropriate stakeholder access while securing 5G services against misuse.

text: Strong digital identities with digital signing from a certificate authority (CA) establishes a root of trust for VNFs while mutual authentication using [61], [27], BP-P1 Zero trust transport layer security (TLS) or datagram TLS (DTLS) with public-key infrastructure and X.509 (PKIX) and strong cipher suites ensures trust [113], [131], between network functions, between the network and NFV, and between application clients and server. (D)TLS with X.509 digital certificates provide [133] automation and security to ensure that only trusted devices are permitted access to a trusted network and application. 5G also provides strong mutual authentication using 5G-AKA, EAP-AKA and EAP-TLS.

text: A zero trust architecture includes automated security configuration for control policies over user access with visibility, monitoring and logging for alerting and auditing. Multifactor authentication (MFA), an important component of zero trust, should be used to ensure secure human access to management interfaces and applications in the 5G NFV. NFV components should be assumed to be untrusted and be able to establish trust through the process of certificate based mutual authentication.

text: Any of the NFV entities or components should have a certificate and an associated and protected private key to execute cryptographic security functions with other terminating entities as described in ETSI GR NFV-SEC.

text: Security assessment New or modified VNF service templates should be validated through proper risk assessment by a security professional. This process ensures that of new or changes to [6], [47], [25], BP-P2 the template complies with applicable legal and regulatory requirements. It also ensures that the template adheres to specific security policies on existing VNF service [123] interface security, security affinity/anti-affinity rules, NFV network zoning and application security. templates

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text: NFV/MANO software components will need to be monitored for vulnerabilities and patched as quickly as possible to address evolving risks and ensure security and functionality. According to the report of the Cyberspace Solarium Commission, patch development and distribution—the process whereby a software developer creates a fix for a vulnerability and distributes it to users—is key to eliminating the risk that a given vulnerability can Vulnerability handling [60], [25], BP-P3 pose. The report recommends, among other things, that developers and manufacturers of software and hardware components establish a publicly & patch management [123] accessible process for reporting vulnerabilities, retain records documenting when a vulnerability was made known or discovered by the company, and maintain a vulnerability disclosure and patching policy for their products. In addition, the report recommends that the US government study the potential effectiveness of directing NIST to develop guidance or expectations about how quickly patches should be implemented once released.

text: Regular penetration and vulnerability testing should be performed across the NFVI and MANO production environment to identify any known vulnerabilities or compromise of the network zoning rules.

text: It is recommended that testing should be carried out if new infrastructure or IP based interconnect elements have been deployed or as a minimum on an annual basis.

text: Security assurance testing of a VNF needs to be performed using a standardised NFVI environment used to test all VNFs. When testing the security assurance of a VNF, the scope of testing should be clarified, including defining the pre-conditions of the virtualised test environment or platform and defining assumptions made in the process. Where possible, recreate these assumptions in the product deployment, e.g. close ports which do not need to be open.

text: Both positive and common vulnerability testing (e.g. negative testing) should be carried out against VNFs and the underlying virtualisation and Security testing [6], [47], [25], BP-P4 hardware layers. This is required to mitigate the increased attack surface which was partly addressed by physical security assurance protections in assurance [139] physical networks.

text: VNFs should be checked regularly to see if they are using out-of-date or insecure versions of a library and these libraries should be updated if and when possible. This is required to mitigate the increased attack surface which was partly addressed by physical security assurance protections in physical networks.

text: It is recommended to use certified components (e.g. hypervisors, OSs, TEE, TPM, etc.) according to a recognised scheme such as Common Criteria. Potential solutions to the above requirements include, among others, the NESAS 3GPP(SCAS)/GSMA and ENISA EU certifications schemes (Currently, three cybersecurity certification schemes are under development by ENISA. One scheme, covering ICT products and called EUCC, is almost ready. It is based on an existing international scheme called Common Criteria. There is a second scheme covering cloud services (this is the EUCS scheme) and a third one on 5G networks (EU5G)).

text: Implement defensive security controls and continuous monitoring backed by machine learning capabilities and establish incident response operations to detect and mitigate threats. Key capabilities include the following.

text: - Vulnerability management: adopt internationally-accepted standards and best practices on the coordinated disclosure of vulnerabilities and handling to effectively identify, mitigate, and remediate security vulnerabilities (e.g. software patching) in a timely manner. - Denial-of-service defence systems: monitor network traffic to detect and mitigate network flooding attacks.

text: - Intrusion detection and prevention systems: monitor network traffic to detect and mitigate unauthorised access or attempts to exploit system BP-P5 Incident management vulnerabilities. [27]

text: - Malicious traffic filtering systems: monitor network traffic to block malicious or unwanted traffic such as spam or attempts to interact with malicious domains and websites.

text: - Anti-malware systems: monitor network traffic and endpoint and server devices to detect and block malware files or malware execution.

text: - Security operations centre: establish a centralised security monitoring, incident response, and threat intelligence organisation responsible for rapidly detecting and mitigating security breaches. Adopt integrated cybersecurity capabilities and automation tools that simplify and streamline security operations.

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text: Secure update The process must consider the ability to update the cryptographic algorithms and to adapt to upcoming 5G security challenges. BP-P6 [50], [47] management Updates must be applied in a timely manner to protect against hardware or software bugs and security flaws, including those which are newly found.

text: It should not be possible to install a VNF application into the operational NFV environment without validation and approval by the operator. Restrictions on [1], [50], [6], BP-P7 Note: this can be a manual control process but it is expected that additional technical security controls will be adopted that allow only signed code to installing applications [47], [25] be installed in the NFV infrastructure.

text: Operators need to use all the layers of security (defence-in-depth) to protect the NFV platforms including firewalls, access control lists, IP tables, rate BP-P8 Defence-in-depth limiting, closing all unnecessary ports, disabling all unnecessary services (for example, TLS and remote access service may not be needed all the [50], [61] time, so therefore it would be a good idea to enable these services only when needed), using strong confidential integrity algorithms, and so forth.

text: A strong complex password should be configured for each hypervisor or CIS ‘root’ account and secured in a safe location with physical and procedural controls on its access and use. It is recommended that the ‘root’ account is only used in exceptional operational circumstances by the Strong password hypervisor or CIS administrator and that separate user accounts are configured with less privilege for day-to-day operational management. BP-P9 [50], [6], [123] policy Note: in the virtual environment hypervisor or CIS ‘root’ password has a greater significance as it controls multiple VMs or containers and provides access to security sensitive information.

text: Trustworthy equipment (all supply chain), resilient system and verification must all be based on standards. Devising the required standards must be a collaborative effort between private (industry, SME, and research) and public (policy makers, regulators) parties, as no single vendor, operator or government can do it alone.

text: Operators should implement effective supply-chain and procurement controls to ensure the services they operate and provide comply with legal requirements and manage supply-chain threats. Processes should be in place to identify, prioritise and assess suppliers and partners of critical systems, components and services using a supply chain risk assessment process.

text: Zero trust principles should be implemented to identify supply chain weaknesses across product creation, manufacturing, testing, and delivery — [60], [138], BP-P10 Secure supply chain without the need for disruptions that ultimately can halt operations. [139] Cybersecurity audits and certifications should be conducted by an independent and accredited body against a defined set of criteria, standards, and the issuing of a certificate indicating conformance. Globally, there are two international arrangements relevant to assuring 5G product security. The Network Equipment Security Assurance Scheme (NESAS), developed jointly by GSMA and 3GPP, covers security assessments of 5G vendor development and product lifecycle processes and security evaluations of network products. Secondly, 5G products can also be certified under the Common Criteria scheme.

text: Through collaboration, a shared responsibility model, zero trust principles, and security assurance, supply chains will strengthen as security improves.

text: Hardware inventory

text: It is expected a hardware (blade) for hypervisor or CIS and bare metal installation for inventory shall exist to support operational management. However, in addition, to providing the ability to complete security investigations and meet possible local regulatory or legal requirements, it is recommended that the inventory stores: Resources inventory BP-P11 management system 1. the location of each blade server (e.g. country, datacentre, rack, shelf); [6], [123] and database 2. mapping VNF to hypervisor or CIS and blade server showing the current and historic records;

text: 3. information as to whether any native installations are sharing the same blade server chassis, associated resources and network infrastructure.

text: Software inventory

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text: A mechanism should exist to identify all VNFCs running in each VM or container within each hypervisor or CIS. It should also be possible to identify which hardware, datacentre, location and country is being used and the assigned IP addresses and types of communication flows, routing tables and effective security policies and filtering rules are in place. In addition, automatic validation should be completed against the VIM and EMS platforms to ensure only authorised VNFC applications are running and installed.

text: Open source inventory

text: Organisations must set up accurate inventories of open-source software dependencies used by their various applications, or a process to receive and manage notifications concerning discovered vulnerabilities or available patches from the community supporting the open-source.

text: Data integrity should be maintained between the NFVi and SDN controller layers and the resource inventory through a robust mechanism implemented during deployment.

text: Such mechanism must have the capability to check the SDN and NFV configuration against the one stored on the resource inventory. It must also have the capability to validate the security policies to ensure they are still being applied correctly, e.g. verifying firewall rules on the orchestration interface or check location of any VNF.

text: A detection or audit mechanism must be implemented to identify where a workflow has been initiated requesting changes to the NFV or SDN environment but where no acknowledgement has been received on its success or failure. Upon detection of such changes an alarm must be raised so the operational team can investigate the incident.

text: For instance, the hypervisor or CIS should be hardened to allow only the minimum services and processes necessary to operate VMs or containers, and all other services should be removed by default. As a minimum, the following configuration changes must be made among others:

text: • remove all unused features; • when a VM or container is deleted the virtual disk should be zeroed to prevent an attacker reconstructing the contents of the VM or container disk;

text: • disable the ability to connect external devices to VMs or containers (e.g. CD, serial and parallel ports);

text: • make sure a VM does not have the ability to run with the full OS privilege level and can only operate at guest level; this can be controlled using Intel VT-x and AMD-V extensions;

text: • make sure each VM or container has a predefined set of restricted resources to ensure one VM or container cannot impact the resources and performance of another in the same hypervisor or CIS;

text: • disable the ability of a VM to initiate ‘disk shrinking’; [37], [79], Apply hardening BP-P12 • enable persistent disk mode; [81], [82], policies [125] • restrict the visibility of one VM or container to detect another VM or container existing on the same host;

text: • use zoning and LUN masking to segregate SAN activity with each VM having unique authentication credentials;

text: • remove direct access to the O&M functionality of the hypervisor or CIS for management only through a secure connection from the VIM; however, this may not always be operationally feasible, so the hypervisor or CIS installation should limit access to the hypervisor or CIS ‘root’ operating system to either:

text: o a dedicated O&M interface supporting a secure protocol (e.g. TLS) with only an IP address,

text: o ACL restriction on which domain can connect successfully;

text: • only allow ‘root’ access from the local terminal (LMP);

text: • where a hardware manufacturer provided monitoring tools that are implemented on the hypervisor or CIS or they utilise embedded support for industry standard protocols such as Common Information Model (CIM), these functions must be installed and operated on the hypervisor or CIS with limited privileges.

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text: Segregation

text: Multi-vendor segregation is necessary to ensure each vendor can only manage or impact the resources related to their own VM or container across the NFVI architecture.

text: Multi-vendor Ideally, different vendors should not share the same VM or container. BP-P13 [124] segregation and trust 112 Note: this can be achieved by following VMware guidelines for implementing secure multi-tenancy.

text: Trust

text: Select VNF vendors that make their vulnerabilities public so their customers can take appropriate actions and mitigations as quickly as possible. There is no security in obscurity.

text: The security-by-design concept should be used to address the protection of NFV resources and components at design time through the integration of security mechanisms. This should concern the hardware layer, the virtualisation layer, MANO and VNFs. Use secure software development lifecycle (SDLC) principles to avoid vulnerabilities and thus contribute to developing NFV software applications BP-P14 Security by design and services in a secure manner. [49], [88]

text: Promote the use of DevSecOps methodology. The DevSecOps process aims at merging the security discipline within DevOps, thus considering security in every stage of the development process. By having security and development teams working together early in the development lifecycle, security naturally finds itself in the product by design.

text: Secure software development principles for VNFs incorporate the following industry best practices: • validating the removal of unused software modules and execution paths;

text: • validating the disabling of unused protocols and the closure of unused ports;Run VM or container image and software package scanning to find known vulnerabilities and fix them before release;

text: Lifecycle • using container-specific host OSs to reduce risk by limiting the attack surface, as recommended in ENISA 5G threat landscape , the BP-P15 115 116 117 [6], [113] management ENISA security aspects of virtualisation , NIST SP 800-190 , NIST guidance , and others;

text: • enforcing Centre for Internet Security (CIS) benchmarks118 for K8S, docker, and Linux to establish a hardened baseline;

text: • ensuring that the software supplier practices proper due diligence when using commercial third-party and open-source software in their projects ;

text: • validating application performance on the hardened infrastructure.

text: A SBOM is a formal record containing the details and supply chain relationships of various open source and commercial software components, Software bill of BP-P16 libraries and modules used in building software. Complex systems such as the 5G NFV might include hundreds or even thousands of software [128], [129] materials (SBOM) components that software development and cybersecurity teams must track through all stages of the lifecycle.

text: 123 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: An SBOM provides those who produce, purchase and operate software with information that enhances their understanding of the supply chain, which enables multiple benefits, most notably the potential to track known and newly emerged vulnerabilities and risks.

text: The minimum elements an SBOM NTIA describes are organised into these three categories:

text: • data fields,

text: • automation support,

text: • practices and processes.

text: A datacentre site supporting NFVi and MANO elements should be operated and controlled by the operator and, ideally, not be outsourced using a third party IaaS supplier.

text: While not recommended, if the operator chooses to use a third party operated datacentre then additional security controls are necessary to ensure the third party complies with the operator’s physical and outsourcing security controls. Secure physical The geographical location of any hardware supporting the NFV must comply with each operators local regulatory and legal requirements for [6], [47], [25], BP-O1 environment and operating a telecoms network or handling sensitive data for customers or LI. [123] geographical location Anti-affinity rules should be applied to protect against possible infringement.

text: Privacy sensitive information of a VNF must be protected from being leaked out of its legal jurisdiction.

text: The system should manage the physical location of the VNFs and sub-components and SDN routing to provide attestation that the VNFCs provide a commensurate level of security to match the requirements of the service or to meet legal or regulatory requirements.

text: Information sharing between different 5G actors: all 5G stakeholders, including operators, suppliers, etc. should work together to enhance the security of 5G.

text: 5G stakeholders should participate in international security events and working groups formed to enable discussion, cooperation and intelligence Training and sharing to improve security awareness. BP-O2 [107] awareness Adopt a comprehensive approach to security training and awareness among the employees, including employees on all levels. Security training should cover 5G relevant threats and be tailored to the employees' roles and responsibilities.

text: Ensure that security trainings are continuous, regular and frequently updated. Training programmes should be updated after new important threats are disclosed and should be adjusted according to the lessons learned from ongoing incident handling and recovery activities.

text: Foster security-related information sharing between different 5G stakeholders while protecting intellectual property. Suppliers and service providers should provide evidence about the implementation of their cybersecurity management system to operators. For transparency purposes, OEMs should consider providing similar evidence to their suppliers and service providers as well. BP-O3 Trust model Define the relevant cybersecurity aspects of the partnerships along the supply chain and develop security requirements and procurement guidelines [108] between 5G stakeholders. To prevent security risks and threats that may stem from outsourced services or components or systems provided by third party suppliers, operators should define procurement guidelines as well as security requirements to be applied to the suppliers to their third parties. A security SLA may also be established between the operator and its supplier to define the security level that the supplier should meet.

text: SLAs between 5G stakeholders should consider the security aspects to identify mitigation strategies and how to implement actions in response to those responsible for the security assessment of the 5G NFV. BP-O4 SLAs establishment The SLAs for security management and maintenance can include plans to mitigate known threats and respond to future threats. [98]

text: Addressing security in the SLA promotes transparency, facilitates communication between the stakeholders involved, including their internal entities (e.g. teams for security management and monitoring) and establishes consensus practices to solidify the overall 5G system security.

text: 124 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: F ANNEX: MAPPING OF CHALLENGES, VULNERABILITIES, ATTACK SCENARIOS, AFFECTED ASSETS AND BEST PRACTICES

text: ID Challenges Vulnerabilities Attacks Affected Assets Best practices

text: Virtualisation/Containerisation

text: VUL5 Improper verification of identity and location of transmitting party on internal

text: interfaces

text: BP-T2 – VNF image validation VUL8 Improper patch management and protection NFV MANO; VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) ATT2 Software flaw BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version attacks VNFs; VNFs data; NS changes VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements data Challenges ATT6 DDoS attacks BP-T4 – VNF deployment VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components within the User data CH-V1 ATT11 Malicious BP-T5 – VNF deletion or runtime VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs VM/Container attacks Signalling data relocation software VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs ATT15 Network UPF; gNB; AMF; UDM; BP-T9 - Remote attestation VUL34 Improper or missing functionality for session protection attacks SMF; AUSF; SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T11 - Security VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging segmentation and isolation

text: between network functions VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: BP-T1 - Security monitoring and filtering

text: NFV MANO; NFVI; VNFM; BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm-vnf changes Flexibility and VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments ATT6 DDoS attacks openness of VNFs data; NS data BP-T9 - Remote attestation

text: service VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding ATT8 Injection attacks BP-T10 - Software compliance environment Network data and integrity preservation VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation Security data BP-T11 - Security

text: segmentation and isolation between network functions

text: 125 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth

text: BP-T7 - Hypervisor/CIS VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation protection

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VNF; UPF/User data; BP-T9 - Remote attestation

text: UPF/Signalling data; gNB; VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements BP-T11 - Security AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; segmentation and isolation VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components SEPP; NRF; NEF between network functions Challenges VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs ATT12 Malicious User data within the BP-T12 - Secure boot integrity CH-V3 hypervisor or CIS hypervisor/CI VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VNFs data attacks BP-T15 - Trusted computing S VUL34 Improper or missing functionality for session protection NS data technologies

text: VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging System data BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs Security data BP-P12 - Apply hardening policies VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-P14 - Security by design

text: VUL11 Time manipulation

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI)

text: VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements

text: VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components BP-T15 - Trusted computing VNF; UPF/User data; VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs technologies Time ATT16 Time UPF/Signalling data; gNB;

text: manipulation VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs manipulation attacks AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-T28 - Trusted time source

text: VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs

text: ATT4 Security BP-T6 - Cryptography standard subversion SM

text: Entropy attacks BP-T15 - Trusted computing CH-V5 VUL13 Improper key management system System data generation technologies ATT11 Malicious VM/ Security data Container attacks BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: NFV MANO; VNF; Os-Ma- BP-T6 – Cryptography VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces ATT4 Security nfvo Encrypted to MANO standard subversion BP-T13 - Data protection and attacks UPF/User data; CH-V6 data privacy VUL3 Improper API access implementation processing UPF/Signalling data; gNB; ATT11 Malicious AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-T15 - Trusted computing VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VM/Container attacks SEPP; NRF; NEF technologies

text: 126 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements System data BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components Security data BP-T34 - User plane security

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs BP-P1 - Zero Trust

text: VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs

text: VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration VNF; NFVI VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments UPF/User data; VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/Signalling data; gNB; AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements ATT4 Security SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T1 - Security monitoring Challenges VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components and filtering within IP standard subversion User data layer vs VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs attacks BP-T13 - Data protection and

text: application VNFs data privacy VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs ATT11 Malicious layer VM/Container attacks NS data BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection Network data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging System data VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs Security data VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration

text: VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements VNF; UPF/User data; UPF/Signalling data; gNB; VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; Default BP-T7 - hypervisor or CIS VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs SEPP; NRF; NEF deployment ATT11 Malicious protection

text: or VM/Container attacks User data VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs configuration BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth VUL34 Improper or missing functionality for session protection VNFs data

text: VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging NS data

text: 127 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL1 Improper message and session integrity checks on internal interfaces

text: VUL2 Improper protection of confidentiality of data transferred over internal interfaces to MANO NFV MANO; VNF; Os-Ma-

text: nfvo ; Control plane VUL3 Improper implementation of API access UPF/User data; VUL7 Lack of protection of user and control planes data UPF/Signalling data; gNB;

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; ATT7 DNS SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T1 - Security monitoring Network VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements Amplification attacks and filtering User data CH-V9 traffic VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components ATT15 Network BP-T21 - Network security exposure VNFs data VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs attacks BP-T34 - User plane security NS data VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs Network data VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection System data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging Security data VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs

text: VUL23 Insufficient / inadequate logging of security events for MANO and NFVI Security logs ATT6 DDoS attacks NFV-MANO; NFVI BP-T17 - Centralised log CH-V10 troubleshooti VUL24 Logs not transferred to centralised storage ATT16 Time auditing ng failure System data VUL25 Improper protection of security event log files manipulation attacks

text: ATT2 Software flaw attacks

text: ATT3 Resource NFV MANO BP-T31 - Specific container misuse attacks security controls Container User data ATT8 Injection attacks CH-V11 acceleration VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions BP-P12 - Apply hardening capabilities VNFs data policies ATT11 Malicious VM/Container attacks NS data BP-P14 – Security-by-design

text: ATT12 Malicious

text: hypervisor/CIS attacks

text: BP-T11 - Security ATT2 Software flaw NFV MANO segmentation and isolation attacks Container VNFs data between network functions

text: CH-V12 isolation VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions ATT3 Resource NS data BP-T12 - Secure boot integrity failure misuse attacks

text: Network data BP-T31 - Specific container ATT8 Injection attacks security controls

text: 128 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: ATT11 Malicious

text: VM/Container attacks

text: ATT12 Malicious hypervisor/CIS

text: attacks

text: ATT2 Software flaw

text: attacks

text: ATT3 Resource misuse attacks BP-T31 - Specific container Sensitive ata in NF ATT8 Injection attacks NFV MANO security controls CH-V13 VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions container Security data BP-P12 - Apply hardening ATT11 Malicious images policies VM/Container attacks

text: ATT12 Malicious hypervisor/CIS

text: attacks

text: Application data traffic

text: VUL45 Vulnerabilities in implementation of MEC security functionalities MEC host

text: VUL46 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of MEC components ATT11 Malicious 3GPP SA6 interfaces;

text: VM/Container attacks ETSI MEC interfaces; VUL47 Improper access control to information Application data traffic ATT12 Malicious BP-T35 - MEC security VUL48 Vulnerable virtualisation / container / micro-service environment hypervisor/CIS MEC platform

text: attacks BP-P7 - Restriction on Core network VUL49 Lack of / improper DDoS protection VIM/CISM installing applications CH-V14 functions in ATT18 Orchestration VUL50 Vulnerabilities in MEC applications Customer facing service the MEC attacks BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth (CFS) portal VUL51 Improper isolation of resources ATT19 Supply chain BP-P12 - Apply hardening MEC applications; Edge policies VUL52 Physical and environmental vulnerabilities of relevant MEC components attacks application server (EAS) VUL53 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of MEC ATT20 Third party components Virtualisation hosting attacks infrastructure VUL54 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components LCM proxy; MEC

text: orchestrator

text: VUL45 Vulnerabilities in implementation of MEC security functionalities Application data traffic ATT11 Malicious BP-T1 - Security monitoring VM/Container attacks MEC host and filtering Wide VUL46 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of MEC components

text: geographical BP-T35 - MEC security VUL47 Improper access control to information ATT12 Malicious 3GPP SA6 interfaces; distribution of CH-V15 hypervisor/CIS ETSI MEC interfaces ; BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth MEC VUL48 Vulnerable virtualisation / container / micro-service environment attacks Application data traffic infrastructure BP-O1 - Secure physical s VUL49 Lack of / improper DDoS protection ATT18 Orchestration MEC platform environment and geographical attacks location VUL50 Vulnerabilities in MEC applications VIM/CISM

text: 129 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL51 Improper isolation of resources ATT19 Supply chain Customer facing service

text: attacks (CFS) portal VUL52 Physical and environmental vulnerabilities of relevant MEC components

text: ATT20 Third party MEC applications; Edge VUL53 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of MEC hosting attacks application server (EAS) components Virtualisation VUL54 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components infrastructure

text: LCM proxy; MEC orchestrator

text: Application data traffic

text: VUL46 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of MEC components ATT11 Malicious 3GPP SA6 interfaces ; VM/Container attacks ETSI MEC interfaces ; VUL47 Improper access control to information application data traffic ATT12 Malicious VUL48 Vulnerable virtualisation / container / micro-service environment BP-T35 – MEC security hypervisor/CIS MEC platform Insecure VUL49 Lack of / improper DDoS protection attacks BP-P1 – Zero Trust API/improper VIM/CISM

text: CH-V16 authenticatio VUL50 Vulnerabilities in MEC applications ATT18 Orchestration BP-P9 – Strong password n of MEC attacks Customer facing service (CFS) portal policy components VUL51 Improper isolation of resources ATT19 Supply chain BP-P14 – Security-by-design VUL52 Physical and environmental vulnerabilities of relevant MEC components MEC applications; Edge attacks application server (EAS) VUL53 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of MEC ATT20 Third party components Virtualisation hosting attacks infrastructure VUL54 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components LCM proxy; MEC orchestrator

text: Application data traffic VUL45 Vulnerabilities in implementation of MEC security functionalities

text: ATT11 Malicious MEC host VUL46 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of MEC components VM/Container attacks 3GPP SA6 interfaces ; VUL47 Improper access control to information ETSI MEC interfaces ; ATT12 Malicious VUL48 Vulnerable virtualisation / container / micro-service environment hypervisor/CIS Application data traffic Insufficient/im proper VUL49 Lack of / improper DDoS protection attacks MEC platform Monitoring BP-T35 - MEC security CH-V17 VUL50 Vulnerabilities in MEC applications ATT18 Orchestration VIM/CISM Mechanisms attacks BP-P14 - Security-by-design of MEC VUL51 Improper isolation of resources Customer facing service components ATT19 Supply chain (CFS) portal VUL52 Physical and environmental vulnerabilities of relevant MEC components attacks MEC applications; Edge VUL53 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of MEC ATT20 Third party Application Server (EAS) components hosting attacks

text: Virtualisation VUL54 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components infrastructure

text: 130 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: LCM proxy; MEC

text: orchestrator

text: SDN controller VUL38 Improper mechanisms for preventing flow rules confliction

text: Northbound interface; BP-T22 - SDN security VUL39 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of SDN components ATT5 LI attacks Southbound interface; management

text: Centralisatio VUL40 Improper authentication and authorisation Eastbound-Westbound ATT9 OSS/BSS BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth n of the SDN interface CH-V18 VUL41 Improper hardening of SDN components attacks control BP-P12 - Apply hardening SDN application; SDN platforms VUL42 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of SDN components ATT18 Orchestration policies resources attacks VUL43 Virtualisation vulnerabilities of relevant SDN components BP-P14 - Security-by-design SDN infrastructure layer

text: VUL44 Data centre vulnerabilities SDN data

text: Northbound interface; VUL39 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of SDN components ATT5 LI attacks Southbound interface; BP-T22 - SDN security

text: VUL40 Improper authentication and authorisation Eastbound-Westbound management Malicious ATT9 OSS/BSS interface CH-V19 SDN VUL41 Improper hardening of SDN components attacks BP-P7 - Restriction on

text: applications SDN application; SDN installing applications VUL42 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of SDN components ATT18 Orchestration resources attacks BP-P14 - Security-by-design VUL43 Virtualisation vulnerabilities of relevant SDN components SDN Infrastructure layer

text: Northbound interface; VUL39 SBA/SBI vulnerabilities of SDN components ATT5 LI attacks Southbound interface;

text: VUL40 Improper authentication and authorisation Eastbound-Westbound Common ATT9 OSS/BSS interface BP-T22 - SDN security CH-V20 SDN VUL41 Improper hardening of SDN components attacks management interfaces SDN application; SDN VUL42 Insufficient or improper monitoring mechanisms of SDN components ATT18 Orchestration resources attacks VUL43 Virtualisation vulnerabilities of relevant SDN components SDN infrastructure layer

text: Os-Ma-nfvo; NFV-MANO; VUL3 Improper API access implementation BP-T2 – VNF image validation VNF; NFVI and protection VUL8 Improper patch management Isolation UPF/User data; BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version failure VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments ATT11 Malicious UPF/Signalling data; gNB; changes CH-V21 AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; between VUL18 Improper authentication policy VM/Container attacks VNFs SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T4 – VNF deployment

text: VUL19 Insecure / insufficient authentication attributes User data BP-T5 – VNF deletion or

text: VUL20 Insecure password policy relocation VNFs data

text: 131 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL21 Insecure authentication mechanisms to management / maintenance NS data BP-T7 - hypervisor/CIS

text: interfaces protection Network data

text: VUL22 Insecure authorisation and access control mechanisms BP-T10 - Software compliance and integrity preservation VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) BP-T11 - Security VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements segmentation and isolation VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components between network functions

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs BP-T14 - Encrypting VNF

text: Volume/swap Areas VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs BP-T19 – VNF protection VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration VNF; NFVI VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments UPF/User data; BP-T2 – VNF image validation VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/Signalling data; gNB; and protection ATT1 Human- VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements instigated attacks AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-T4 – VNF deployment SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL31 Improper protection of Data and Information of 5G NFs components ATT8 Injection attacks BP-T5 – VNF deletion or User data Memory ATT11 Malicious relocation CH-V22 VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs introspection VM/Container attacks VNFs data BP-T7 - hypervisor/CIS VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs ATT12 Malicious NS data protection

text: VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection hypervisor/CIS Network data BP-T11 - Security attacks segmentation and isolation VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging System data between network functions VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs Security data VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: VUL1 Improper message and session integrity checks on internal interfaces ATT3 Resource BP-T7 - hypervisor/CIS VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces misuse attacks NFV MANO; VNF; SM protection to MANO ATT8 Injection attacks UPF/User Ddata; BP-T9 - Remote attestation VUL13 Improper key management system UPF/Signalling data; gNB; ATT11 Malicious Trusted AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-T11 - Security VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VM/Container attacks CH-V23 domains SEPP; NRF; NEF segmentation and isolation

text: segmentation ATT12 Malicious between network functions VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements User data Hypervisor/CIS BP-T15 - Trusted computing VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components attacks VNFs data technologies VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs ATT15 Network NS data BP-T16 - Hardware security attacks VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs

text: 132 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-T26 - Deploying VMs/Containers of differing VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging trust levels

text: BP-T6 – Cryptography

text: BP-T11 - Security segmentation and isolation ATT3 Resource between network functions

text: misuse attacks VIM/CISM Access to BP-T20 - Local or removable VUL6 Inability to provide proof of integrity of the data stores used for VM/Container Blade Storage- SAN protection CH-V24 storage ATT8 Injection attacks VNFs data images resources BP-T30 - Redundancy and ATT14 Hardware Security data attacks backup

text: BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth

text: BP-P12 - Apply hardening policies

text: BP-T2 – VNF Image validation and protection VUL1 Improper message and session integrity checks on internal interfaces

text: BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces changes to MANO

text: BP-T4 – VNF deployment VUL3 Improper API Access implementation

text: BP-T5 – VNF deletion or VUL13 Improper key management system NFV MANO; VNF; Os-Ma- relocation Sharing of VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) nfvo ; SM private keys ATT3 Resource BP-T7 - Hypervisor/CIS between VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements UPF/User Data; protection misuse attacks CH-V25 VNFs and UPF/Signalling Data; gNB; VUL31 Improper protection of Data and Information of 5G NFs components BP-T10 - Software compliance confidentiality ATT11 Malicious AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; VM/Container attacks and integrity preservation of sensitive VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs SEPP; NRF; NEF data BP-T14 - Encrypting VNF VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs Security data Volume/swap Areas

text: VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-T15 - Trusted computing VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging technologies

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in Operating Systems supporting 5G NFs BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G Core components BP-T19 – VNF protection

text: BP-P1 - Zero Trust

text: Availability of NFV MANO; VNF; BP-T2 – VNF Image validation CH-V26 network VUL1 Improper message and session integrity checks on internal interfaces ATT8 Injection attacks VIM/CISM; Os-Ma-nfvo ; and protection functions Control plane

text: 133 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces UPF/User Data; BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version to MANO UPF/Signalling Data; gNB; changes AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; VUL3 Improper API Access implementation BP-T4 – VNF deployment SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL4 Use of legacy PNF BP-T5 – VNF deletion or User data relocation VUL5 Improper verification of identity and location of transmitting party on internal VNFs data interfaces BP-T7 - Hypervisor/CIS NS data protection VUL6 Inability to provide proof of integrity of the data stores used for VM/Container images Network data BP-T12 - Secure boot integrity

text: VUL7 Lack of protection of user and control planes data System data BP-T30 - Redundancy and backup VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI)

text: VUL31 Improper protection of Data and Information of 5G NFs components

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in Operating Systems supporting 5G NFs

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G Core components

text: ATT8 Injection attacks Control plane BP-T9 - Remote attestation Software VUL6 Inability to provide proof of integrity of the data stores used for VM/Container ATT11 Malicious Network data catalogue images VM/Container attacks BP-P7 - Restriction on CH-V27 User data image installing applications VUL7 Lack of protection of user and control planes data ATT12 Malicious exposure VNFs data hypervisor/CIS BP-P8 - Defene-in-depth attacks NS data

text: BP-T29 - Secure 3rd party hosting environments

text: VUL5 Improper verification of identity and location of transmitting party on internal BP-P7 - Restriction on NFV MANO; VIM/CISM ATT2 Software flaw installing applications interfaces Multi-vendors attacks CH-V28 VNFs data integration VUL6 Inability to provide proof of integrity of the data stores used for VM/Container BP-P13 - Multi-vendors ATT8 Injection attacks NS data segregation and trust images BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: Multi-tenants VUL18 Improper authentication policy ATT20 Third party CH-V29 NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI BP-T9 - Remote attestation co-residency VUL22 Insecure authorization and access control mechanisms hosting attacks

text: 134 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/User Data; BP-T29 - Secure 3rd party

text: UPF/Signalling Data; gNB; hosting environments VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-P7 - Restriction on VUL31 Improper protection of Data and Information of 5G NFs components SEPP; NRF; NEF installing applications

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs User data

text: VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VNFs data

text: VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection NS data

text: VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging Network data

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in Operating Systems supporting 5G NFs System data

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G Core components Security data

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration

text: VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments

text: BP-T2 – VNF Image validation VUL13 Improper key management system and protection VUL14 Lack of a proper mechanism for ensuring a Hardware-Based Root of Trust ATT11 Malicious NFVI; VNF; SM BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version (HBRT) VM/Container attacks changes UPF/User Data; VUL15 Software Vulnerabilities in NFV implementation ATT12 Malicious UPF/Signalling Data; gNB; BP-T4 – VNF deployment

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) Hypervisor/CIS AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; Elastic nature BP-T5 – VNF deletion or attacks SEPP; NRF; NEF of NFVI- VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements relocation

text: migration of ATT13 User data VNFs VUL31 Improper protection of Data and Information of 5G NFs components BP-T7 - Hypervisor/CIS Command/control VNFs data protection VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs channel attacks

text: NS data BP-T14 - Encrypting VNF VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs ATT14 Hardware Volume/swap Areas attacks Network data VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-T19 – VNF protection

text: VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging BP-P8 - Defense in depth

text: ATT11 Malicious BP-T30 - Redundancy and

text: VM/Container attacks NFV MANO backup

text: ATT12 Malicious User data BP-P7 - Restriction on Geographical Hypervisor/CIS installing applications CH-V31 VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions VNFs data Location attacks BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth

text: NS data ATT13 BP-O1 - Secure physical Command/control Network data environment and geographical channel attacks location

text: 135 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: ATT14 Hardware

text: attacks

text: ATT15 Network attacks

text: VUL14 Lack of a proper mechanism for ensuring a hardware-based root of trust (HBRT)

text: VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding ATT11 Malicious VNF; NFVI; VNFM; Ve- VM/Container attacks VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm-vnf

text: ATT12 Malicious VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/User data; BP-T13 - Data protection and Hypervisor/CIS UPF/Signalling data; gNB; privacy VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements attacks AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; Data lifecycle ATT13 BP-T30 - Redundancy and VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components SEPP; NRF; NEF CH-V32 backup and location Command/control VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs channel attacks User data BP-P1 - Zero trust VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VNFs data ATT14 Hardware BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth attacks NS data VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection

text: ATT15 Network Network data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging attacks

text: VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding

text: VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation

text: NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI; VUL18 Improper authentication policy VNFM; Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve- VUL19 Insecure / insufficient authentication attributes Vnfm-vnf BP-T2 – VNF image validation

text: and protection VUL20 Insecure password policy UPF/User data; ATT11 Malicious UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version VUL21 Insecure authentication mechanisms to management / maintenance VM/Container attacks AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; changes interfaces SEPP; NRF; NEF ATT13 BP-T4 – VNF deployment VNF host VUL22 Insecure authorisation and access control mechanisms CH-V33 Command/control User data spanning BP-T5 – VNF deletion or channel attacks VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VNFs data relocation ATT15 Network VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements attacks NS data BP-T14 - Encrypting VNF

text: VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components volume/swap areas Network data

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs BP-T19 – VNF protection System data

text: VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs Security data

text: 136 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VNF VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements UPF/User data; UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-T3 - Tracking VNF version VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; Dynamic changes VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs SEPP; NRF; NEF nature of ATT15 Network CH-V34 BP-T7 - Hypervisor/CIS network attacks User data VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs protection functions VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection VNFs data BP-T9 - Remote attestation VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging NS data VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs Network data

text: Orchestration and management

text: VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces to MANO VUL8 Improper patch management VUL14 Lack of a proper mechanism for ensuring a hardware-based root of trust (HBRT) VUL23 Insufficient / inadequate logging of security events for MANO and NFVI NFV MANO; VNF; NFVI BP-T4 – VNF deployment VUL26 Use of weak cryptographic algorithms UPF/User data; BP-T5 – VNF deletion or ATT2 Software flaw UPF/Signalling data; gNB; relocation VUL27 Insecure interface between OOS/BSS and NFV/MANO AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; attacks MANO single SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T8 - Security management VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) CH-OM1 point of ATT7 DNS and orchestration failures VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements Amplification attacks OSS/BSS systems BP-T10 - Software compliance VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components ATT8 Injection attacks VNFs data and integrity preservation VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs NS data BP-T23 - MANO access Network data control and management VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: 137 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL5 Improper verification of identity and location of transmitting party on internal interfaces

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration

text: VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation ATT5-ATT10-ATT17 NFV MANO; VNF; NFVI; BP-T2 – VNF image validation

text: LI attacks VNFM; Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve- and protection VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding Vnfm-vnf ATT7 DNS BP-T8 - Security management VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation Amplification attacks UPF/User data; and orchestration VUL18 Improper authentication policy UPF/Signalling data; gNB; Orchestration ATT8 Injection attacks BP-T10 - Software compliance AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; compromise VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) and integrity preservation CH-OM2 ATT9 OSS/BSS SEPP; NRF; NEF and policy violations VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements Attacks BP-T23 - MANO access User data control and management VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components ATT11 Malicious VNFs data VM/Container attacks BP-T27 - Orchestration VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs NS data platform security management ATT15 Network VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs attacks Network data BP-P14 - Security-by-design

text: ATT1 Human-

text: instigated attacks

text: ATT3 Resource BP-T6 – Cryptography Resource misuse attacks integrity BP-T10 - Software compliance caused by VUL6 Inability to provide proof of integrity of the data stores used for VM/Container ATT8 Injection attacks VIM/CISM; VNFM; Ve- and integrity preservation

text: manual images Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm-vnf CH-OM3 changes or ATT9 OSS/BSS BP-P11 - Resource Iinventory VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding Attacks VNFs data management system and failure to update VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation NS data database ATT11 Malicious resource VM/Container attacks BP-T23 - MANO access inventory control and management ATT12 Malicious

text: hypervisor/CIS attacks

text: VUL5 Improper verification of identity and location of transmitting party on internal NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI BP-T8 - Security management Vulnerabilitie interfaces and orchestration s within ATT18 Orchestration UPF/User data; CH-OM4 UPF/Signalling data; gNB; orchestration VUL18 Improper authentication policy attacks BP-T23 - MANO access protocols AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; control and management VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) SEPP; NRF; NEF

text: 138 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements User data BP-T27 - Orchestration platform security management VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components VNFs data

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs NS data

text: VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs Network data

text: Administration and access control

text: VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding

text: VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation NFV MANO, NFVI; VNFM; BP-T2 – VNF image validation Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm-vnf and protection VUL18 Improper authentication policy User data BP-T23 - MANO access Malicious VUL19 Insecure / insufficient authentication attributes ATT1 Human- control and management

text: insiders instigated attacks VNFs data VUL20 Insecure password policy BP-P9 - Strong password NS data policy VUL21 Insecure authentication mechanisms to management / maintenance interfaces Network data BP-P1 - Zero Trust

text: VUL22 Insecure authorisation and access control mechanisms

text: BP-T7 - Hypervisor/CIS protection NFVI BP-T8 - Security management User data and orchestration Single ATT1 Human- CH-AC2 administrator VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments VNFs data BP-T18 - Use and ownership instigated attacks domain of ‘root’ administration NS data credentials Network data BP-P9 - Strong password policy

text: VUL18 Improper authentication policy NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI Lack of staff VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/User data; with the skillsets UPF/Signalling data; gNB; VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements ATT1 Human- BP-O2 - Training and AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; CH-AC3 needed to instigated attacks SEPP; NRF; NEF awareness operate VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components virtualised User data VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs networks VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VNFs data

text: 139 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs Security data

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components System data

text: VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces to MANO

text: VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding

text: VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation NFV MANO; VNF; VNFM; VUL18 Improper authentication policy Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfmvnf; NFVI VUL19 Insecure / insufficient authentication attributes UPF/User data; VUL20 Insecure password policy ATT11 Malicious UPF/Signalling data; gNB; VM/Container attacks Insecure VUL21 Insecure authentication mechanisms to management / maintenance AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T1 - Security monitoring management interfaces ATT12 Malicious configuration, hypervisor/CIS and filtering CH-AC4 VUL22 Insecure authorisation and access control mechanisms User data and attacks BP-T23 - MANO access monitoring VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VNFs data control and management ATT13 interfaces VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements Command/control NS data channel attacks VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components Network data

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs Security data

text: VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs System data

text: VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding BP-T8 - Security management VNFM; Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve- ATT1 Human- and orchestration VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation Vnfm-vnf; NFV-MANO; instigated attacks VNF; NFVI BP-T9 - Remote attestation Compromise VUL18 Improper authentication policy ATT7 DNS of UPF/User data; BP-T23 - MANO access Amplification attacks VUL19 Insecure / insufficient authentication attributes UPF/Signalling data; gNB; CH-AC5 orchestration control and management access ATT9 OSS/BSS AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; VUL20 Insecure password policy Attacks SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-T27 - Orchestration control VUL21 Insecure authentication mechanisms to management / maintenance platform security management ATT15 Network User data interfaces attacks BP-P9 - Strong password VNFs data policy VUL22 Insecure authorisation and access control mechanisms

text: 140 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) NS data

text: VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements Network data

text: VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components

text: VUL6 Inability to provide proof of integrity of the data stores used for VM/Container images VIM/CISM; NFV-MANO; VNF; NFVI BP-T8 - Security management VUL18 Improper authentication policy and orchestration UPF/User data; Weak or VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) ATT1 Human- UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-T23 - MANO access insecure instigated attacks VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; control and management authenticatio ATT7 DNS SEPP; NRF; NEF CH-AC6 n/access VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components BP-T24 - VIM connectivity to Amplification attacks control/autho User data virtualisation layer risation to VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs ATT15 Network VNFs data BP-P1 - Zero Trust VIM attacks VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs NS data BP-P9 - Strong password VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection policy Network data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging

text: New and legacy technologies

text: BP-T25 - Recovery and reinstallation

text: BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth Mixed virtual and legacy ATT21 Mixed Control plane BP-P12 - Apply hardening CH-LG1 VUL4 Use of legacy PNF policies PNF deployment attacks Network data deployments BP-P14 - Security-by-design

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: 141 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: NFVI

text: User data BP-T16 - Hardware security

text: ATT14 Hardware VNFs data BP-T30 - Redundancy and Vulnerabilitie VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments attacks backup CH-LG2 s of physical VUL14 Lack of a proper mechanism for ensuring a hardware-based root of trust NS data hosts ATT21 Mixed BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth (HBRT) deployment attacks Network data BP-P12 - Apply hardening Security data policies

text: System data

text: BP-T32 - OSS/BSS protection VUL26 Use of weak cryptographic algorithms Transformati BP-P5 - Incident management ATT9 OSS/BSS CH-LG3 on of legacy VUL27 Insecure interface between OOS/BSS and NFV/MANO OSS/BSS systems attacks BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth OSS/BSS VUL28 Insufficient / inadequate logging of sensitive data BP-P14 - Security-by-design

text: BP-T32 - OSS/BSS protection

text: BP-P5 - Incident management

text: BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth Integration VUL26 Use of weak cryptographic algorithms

text: with existing ATT9 OSS/BSS BP-P12 - Apply hardening CH-LG4 VUL27 Insecure interface between OOS/BSS and NFV/MANO OSS/BSS systems legacy attacks policies OSS/BSS VUL28 Insufficient / inadequate logging of Sensitive Data BP-P14 - Security-by-design

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: Adoption of open source/COTS

text: VUL8 Improper patch management BP-P2 - Security assessment

text: of new or changes to existing VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation VNF; UPF/User data; VNF service templates

text: VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements & patch management SEPP; NRF; NEF Adoption of ATT2 Software flaw VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components BP-P5 - Incident management attacks User data CH-OC1 open-source software VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs BP-P6 - Secure update ATT8 Injection attacks VNFs data management VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs NS data BP-P12 - Apply hardening VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection policies Network data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging BP-P15 - Lifecycle

text: VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs management

text: 142 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-P16 - Software bill Of materials (SBOM)

text: BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling NFVI & patch management

text: ATT14 Hardware User data BP-P5 - Incident management Adoption of attacks CH-OC2 COTS VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments VNFs data BP-P6 - Secure update hardware ATT20 Third party management hosting attacks NS data BP-P12 - Apply hardening Network data policies

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: Supply chain

text: VUL9 Misconfiguration Hardware platform, NFVI, VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) VNF, MANO VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements UPF/User data; VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components UPF/Signalling data; gNB; Separation of AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-P5 - Incident management test and VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs ATT19 Supply chain SEPP; NRF; NEF CH-SC1 BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth production VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs attacks environments VNFs data BP-P10 - Secure supply chain VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection NS data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging Security data VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs

text: VUL3 Improper API access implementation Os-Ma-nfvo; NFV-MANO; BP-T25 - Recovery and VUL8 Improper patch management VNF; NFVI reinstallation

text: VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments UPF/User data; BP-T29 - Secure 3rd party UPF/Signalling data; gNB; hosting environments Untrusted VUL18 Improper authentication policy ATT19 Supply chain AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; CH-SC2 BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling partners attacks SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) & patch management VNFs data VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements BP-P5 - Incident management NS data VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components BP-P6 - Secure update Security data management VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs

text: 143 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth

text: VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-P10 - Secure supply chain

text: VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging BP-P15 - Lifecycle

text: management VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs

text: BP-P16 - Software bill of VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components materials (SBOM)

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: VUL8 Improper patch management BP-T25 - Recovery and NFVI, MANO, VNF reinstallation VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation UPF/User data; BP-P1 - Zero Trust VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; & patch management Infected/unte SEPP; NRF; NEF sted/unautho VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components User data BP-P5 - Incident management rised ATT19 Supply chain CH-SC3 VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs untested attacks BP-P6 - Secure update VNFs data patches or VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs management

text: upgrades NS data VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-P10 - Secure supply chain

text: Network data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging BP-P15 - Lifecycle Security data management VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs System data BP-P16 - Software bill of VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components materials (SBOM)

text: VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation VNF; UPF/User data; VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-P2 - Security assessment VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; of new or changes to existing

text: SEPP; NRF; NEF VNF service templates VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components User data BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling Test isolation VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs ATT19 Supply chain & patch management CH-SC4 and VNFs data VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs attacks assurance BP-P4 - Security testing and NS data assurance VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection Network data BP-P5 - Incident management VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging Security data BP-P10 - Secure supply chain VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs System data VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: Use of VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation BP-P2 - Security assessment ATT19 Supply chain CH-SC5 counterfeit VNF; UPF/User data; of new or changes to existing VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) attacks UPF/Signalling data; gNB; components VNF service templates

text: 144 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling

text: SEPP; NRF; NEF & patch management VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components

text: User data BP-P5 - Incident management VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs

text: VNFs data BP-P6 - Secure update VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs management NS data VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-P10 - Secure supply chain Network data VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging BP-P15 - Lifecycle Security data VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs management

text: System data VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-P16 - Software bill of materials (SBOM)

text: BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: BP-P2 - Security assessment

text: of new or changes to existing VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation VNF service templates

text: VNF; UPF/User data; VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) BP-P3 - Vulnerability handling UPF/Signalling data; gNB; & patch management VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; SEPP; NRF; NEF BP-P5 - Incident management VUL31 Improper protection of data and Information of 5G NFs components User data BP-P6 - Secure update Use of VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs ATT19 Supply chain management CH-SC6 Inherited VNFs data VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs attacks Components BP-P10 - Secure supply chain NS data VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection BP-P15 - Lifecycle Network data management VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging Security data BP-P16 - Software bill of VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs System data materials (SBOM)

text: VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components BP-O3 - Trust model

text: BP-O4 - SLAs establishment

text: Lawful interception (LI)

text: VUL2 Improper confidentiality protection of data transferred over internal interfaces to MANO NFV MANO; VNF; Control plane BP-T6 – Cryptography

text: VUL7 Lack of protection of user and control planes data Encryption of UPF/User data; BP-T15 - Trusted computing VUL26 Use of weak cryptographic algorithms ATT5-ATT10-ATT17 technologies CH-LI1 Communicati UPF/Signalling data; gNB; LI attacks ons AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) BP-T33 - LI capabilities SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements BP-P5 - Incident management OSS/BSS systems VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components

text: 145 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components VUL8 Improper patch management VUL9 Misconfiguration VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions VUL11 Time manipulation VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments VUL13 Improper key management system VUL14 Lack of a proper mechanism for ensuring a hardware-based root of trust (HBRT) VNF; NFV MANO; NFVI; BP-T33 - LI capabilities Cooperation SM VUL15 Software vulnerabilities in NFV implementation BP-P5 - Incident management of Numerous ATT5-ATT10-ATT17 CH-LI2 UPF/User data; Network VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) LI attacks UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth Providers VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; BP-P14 - Security-by-design SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments NFV MANO; NFVI; VNFM; Availability of VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm-vnf BP-T33 - LI capabilities Data at the LI ATT5-ATT10-ATT17 CH-LI3 VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation UPF/User data; BP-P5 - Incident management Central LI attacks UPF/Signalling data; gNB; Nodes VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components

text: 146 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: VUL10 No mechanism to enforce geo-restrictions VUL12 Inadequate access privileges in virtualised environments VUL16 Improper VNF on-boarding VUL17 Improper VNF instantiation BP-T33 - LI capabilities VUL29 Improper transport layer protection of service-based interfaces (SBI) NFV MANO; NFVI; VNFM; Ve-Vnfm-em; Ve-Vnfm-vnf BP-P5 - Incident management VUL30 Incorrect implementation of 5G network functions security requirements LI in Hybrid ATT5-ATT10-ATT17 UPF/User data; BP-P8 - Defence-in-depth CH-LI4 VUL31 Improper protection of data and information of 5G NFs components Deployment LI attacks UPF/Signalling data; gNB; BP-P12 - Apply hardening VUL32 Improper protection of availability and integrity of 5G NFs AMF; UDM; SMF; AUSF; policies SEPP; NRF; NEF VUL33 Vulnerable mechanisms for authentication and authorisation of 5G NFs BP-P14 - Security-by-design VUL34 Improper / missing functionality for session protection VUL35 Lack of or improper security event logging VUL36 Vulnerabilities in operating systems supporting 5G NFs VUL37 Improper hardening of 5G core components

text: 147 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: G ANNEX: REFERENCES FOR CHALLENGES

text: ID Challenge References

text: Virtualisation and containerisation

text: CH-V1 Challenges within the runtime software [1], [23], [60], [54], [56], [49], [84], [47], [17] CH-V2 Flexibility and openness of service environment [1], [50], [23], [73], [74] CH-V3 Challenges within the hypervisor/CIS [6], [25] CH-V4 Time manipulation [47], [136] CH-V5 Entropy generation [109] CH-V6 Encrypted data processing [47] CH-V7 Challenges within IP layer vs application layer [47] CH-V8 Default deployment or configuration [84], [6], [25] CH-V9 Network traffic exposure [48], [60], [61], [84], [25] CH-V10 Security logs troubleshooting failure [50] CH-V11 Container acceleration capabilities [47] CH-V12 Container isolation failure [47] CH-V13 Sensitive data in NF container images [47] CH-V14 Core network functions in the MEC [112] CH-V15 Wide geographical distribution of MEC infrastructures [126] CH-V16 Insecure API/improper authentication of MEC components [126] CH-V17 Insufficient/improper monitoring mechanisms of MEC components [126]

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text: CH-V18 Centralisation of the SDN control platforms [59], [39], [40], [41] CH-V19 Malicious SDN applications [59], [111], [112] CH-V20 Common SDN interfaces [59], [42], [43], [44], [45], [46] CH-V21 Isolation failure between VNFs [50], [23], [55] , [56], [58], [63], [71], [74], [75], [76], [84], [47], [25] CH-V22 Memory introspection [47] CH-V23 Trusted domains segmentation [47], [25], [17] CH-V24 Access to storage resources [25], [114] CH-V25 Sharing of private keys between VNFs and confidentiality of sensitive data [37], [47] CH-V26 Availability of network functions [47] CH-V27 Software catalogue image exposure [47] CH-V28 Multi-vendors integration [55], [56], [25] CH-V29 Multi-tenants co-residency [47], [25], [118], [119] CH-V30 Elastic nature of NFVI-migration of VNFs [50], [55], [56], [74], [83], [84], [6], [47], [25] CH-V31 Geographical location [50], [47], [25] CH-V32 Data lifecycle and location [47] CH-V33 VNF host spanning [47] CH-V34 Dynamic nature of network functions [50], [77]

text: Orchestration and management

text: CH-OM1 MANO single point of failures [6], [47] CH-OM2 Orchestration compromise and policies violations [6], [13], [47], [84], [115], [116] CH-OM3 Resource integrity caused by manual changes or failure to update resource inventory [84], [6], [47] CH-OM4 Vulnerabilities within orchestration protocols [6], [13], [47], [84], [115], [116], [134], [135]

text: Administration and access control

text: 149 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: CH-AC1 Malicious insiders [50], [23], [79], [84], [47] CH-AC2 Single administrator domain [47], [17] CH-AC3 Lack of staff with the skillsets needed to operate virtualised networks [60], [6] CH-AC4 Insecure management, configuration and monitoring interfaces [23], [55], [56], [84], [47] CH-AC5 Compromise of orchestration access control [57], [61], [84], [6] CH-AC6 Weak or insecure authentication/access control/authorisation to VIM [57], [61], [84], [6]

text: New and legacy technologies

text: CH-LG1 Mixed virtual and legacy PNF deployments [47] CH-LG2 Vulnerabilities of physical hosts [47] CH-LG3 Transformation of legacy OSS/BSS [99], [100], [101] CH-LG4 Integration with existing legacy OSS/BSS [99], [100], [101]

text: Adoption of open source and COTS

text: CH-OC1 Adoption of open-source software [57], [61], [130] CH-OC2 Adoption of COTS hardware [120], [121]

text: Supply chain

text: CH-SC1 Separation of test and production environments [117] CH-SC2 Untrusted partners [60], [62] CH-SC3 Infected/untested/unauthorised untested patches or upgrades [84], [6], [117] CH-SC4 Test isolation and assurance [47] CH-SC5 Use of counterfeit components [112] CH-SC6 Use of inherited components [112]

text: Lawful interception (LI)

text: CH-LI1 Encryption of communications [94]

text: 150 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: CH-LI2 Cooperation of numerous network providers [94] CH-LI3 Availability of data at the LI central nodes [94] CH-LI4 LI in hybrid deployment [127]

text: 151 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: H ANNEX: NFV MANO PLATFORMS

text: This annex details the main MANO platforms for both VMs and/or containers. H.1 OSM Open-Source MANO (OSM) is an ETSI-hosted open-source community delivering a productionquality MANO stack for NFV, capable of consuming openly published information models, available to everyone, suitable for all VNFs, operationally significant and VIM-independent. OSM is aligned to NFV ISG information models while providing first-hand feedback based on its 120 121 implementation experience . OSM Release EIGHT brings several improvements over previous releases. It allows the flexibility of cloud-native applications to be combined within the same network service with the predictability of traditional virtual and physical network functions (VNFs and PNFs) and all the required advanced networking required to build complex E2E telecom services. OSM Release EIGHT is at the forefront of Edge and 5G operations technology, deploying and operating containerised network functions on Kubernetes with a complete lifecycle management, and automated integration. In addition, OSM extends the SDN framework to support the next generation of SDN solutions providing higher level primitives and increasing the number of available options for supporting I/O-intensive applications. Furthermore, the plugin models for intra- and inter-datacentre SDN have been consolidated, and the management, addition and maintenance of SDN plugins significantly simplified. OSM Release EIGHT also brings major enhancements designed to improve the overall user experience and interoperability choices. This includes an improved workflow for VNF configuration which allows much faster and complex operations, and the support of additional types of infrastructures, such as Azure and VMware's vCD 10, complementing the previously available choices (OpenStack-based VIMs, VMware VIO, VMware vCD, AWS, Fog05 and OpenVIM). It improves the orchestration of diverse virtualisation environments, including PNFs, a number of different VIMs for VNFs, and Kubernetes for Cloud native NFs. H.2 ONAP Open Network Automation Platform (ONAP) is an open-source project hosted by the Linux Foundation , officially launched in 2017, enabling telco networks to become increasingly more autonomous. ONAP is capable of providing a real-time, policy-driven service orchestration and automation, enabling telco operators and application developers to instantiate and configure network functions. ONAP, through different releases, supports features such as a) multi-site and multi-vendor automation capabilities, b) service and resources deployment, thus providing c) cloud network elements and services instantiation in a dynamic, real-time and closed-loop manner for several major telco activities, (e.g. design, deployment and operation of services at design-time and run-time. 152 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 Various edge cloud architectures have already emerged from different communities and potentially can be plugged into the ONAP architecture for service orchestration. The ONAP community analyses the orchestration requirements of services over various edge clouds and how these requirements impact ONAP components in terms of data collection, processing, policy management, resource management, control loop models and security, as well as application and network function deployment and control. We invite the reader to read more detail in this link . H.3 OPNFV It was launched by the Linux Foundation in September 2014 [67]. OPNFV focuses on NFVI and includes an SDN controller and switch. OPNFV is a platform for implementing NFV and can provide feedback on the necessary information to the ONAP platform. The four goals of OPNFV are as follows: • after testing, to use continuous integration or continuous delivery (CI/CD) to develop an open-source platform that can build NFV system functions; • to invite operators of telecommunication services to join the programme and verify that OPNFV meets user expectations; • to join other open-source projects that will use OPNFV to ensure consistency, performance and interoperability. • To build an ecosystem of NFV solutions based on open source. H.4 SONATA The SONATA project is a component of an EU-funded project, Horizon 2020, and part of the 5G-PPP initiative. The SONATA [65] service platform is implemented as a modular microservice, which is very flexible and helps the operator to modify a customised function. Software Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Function Virtualisation (NFV) are emerging as major transformational technologies towards ‘software networks’, a new paradigm that is furthering the evolution of the telecom sector with new network capabilities and business opportunities. SONATA addresses the significant challenges associated with both the development and deployment of the complex services envisioned for 5G networks and empowered by these technologies. Core objectives include: • reduced time-to-market of networked services: SONATA streamlines development with abstract programming models, SDK and a DevOps model that integrates operators, manufacturers and third-party developers; • optimised resources and reduced costs of service deployment and operation: SONATA orchestrates complex services for connectivity, computing and storage resources, and automatically re-configures running services. • accelerated industry adoption of software networks: SONATA supports the full service lifecycle, i.e. development, testing, orchestration, deployment, management and operations, and will define a roadmap for the uptake of results towards stakeholders' larger transition to SDN/NFV. H.5 OPENSTACK TACKER OpenStack Tacker is under the big tent of OpenStack projects and aims at building an open orchestrator with a general purpose VNF Manager to deploy and operate virtual network functions on an NFV platform. It is based on the ETSI MANO architectural framework and provides a full functional stack to orchestrate VNFs end-to-end. Today, Tacker offers features like a VNF catalogue, a basic VNF lifecycle management, VNF configuration management 153 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 framework, and a VNF health monitoring framework. The VNF catalogue makes use of the topology and orchestration specification for cloud applications (TOSCA) language for the definition of VNF meta-data and OpenStack Glance to store and manage the VNF images. Tacker VNF lifecycle management takes care of the instantiation and termination of virtual machines, self-healing and auto-scaling, and VNF image updates. It also takes care of interfaces to vendor specific element management systems. Like the VNF catalogue, the basic VNF lifecycle management relies on existing OpenStack services and uses OpenStack Heat to start and stop virtual machines that contain the VNF. Thus, the TOSCA templates are automatically translated to OpenStack Heat templates. H.6 OPENBATON OpenBaton is an open source project by Fraunhofer FOKUS that enables implementation of the ETSI management and orchestration specification. Its main components are a network function virtualisation orchestrator, a generic virtual network function manager that manages VNF lifecycles based on the VNF description, and an SDK comprising a set of libraries that could be used for building a specific VNF Manager. The NFV orchestrator, which is the main component of OpenBaton, is written in Java using the spring.io framework. To interconnect the NFV orchestrator to different VNF managers, OpenBaton relies on the Java messaging system. The NFV orchestrator is currently using OpenStack as an integrated virtual infrastructure manager, supporting dynamic registration of NFV points of presence and deploys in parallel multiple slices consisting of one or multiple VNFs. Through this functionality the orchestrator provides a multi-tenant environment distributed on top of multiple cloud instances. H.7 KUBERNETES Over the last few years Kubernetes (noted as K8s) has become a de facto standard for container orchestration. As container transformation unfolds in the telecom industry, VM based VNFs give way to cloud native NFs. Kubernetes is a container orchestration system for automating application deployment, scaling, and management. In the parlance of ETSI’s NFV architecture, it performs the role of the container infrastructure service management (CISM) function (which performs equivalent ‘virtualised resource management’ as VIMs do but for the container deployment case as described in ETSI GR NFV-IFA 029 and ETSI GS NFV-IFA 040). ETSI GS NFV-SOL 018 (Draft specification - work in progress) provides a mapping of the NFV object model for OS container management and orchestration to managed objects of ® TM ® Kubernetes and Helm as specified by the CNCF along with a specification of a mapping between a common set of input parameters (e.g. derived from VNFD/NSD and/or NFV-MANO RESTful APIs) and output parameters associated with the management and orchestration of the managed objects. 154 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 and data model solution for OS container image management. ETSI GS NFV-SOL 018 includes guidelines and rules on how the profiled and referenced solutions can be adopted in a way that facilitates their integration with the NFV-MANO framework solutions. In the Kubernetes ecosystem, there is a project called KubeVirt that provides a way to take an existing VM and run it inside a container. With KubeVirt, it possible to deploy and manage applications that comprise any arbitrary mix of native container workloads and VM workloads using Kubernetes. The underlying infrastructure can be OpenStack, VMware, bare metal or any of the main public clouds including Azure, AWS or Google. 155 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: I ANNEX: NFV STANDARDISATION, OPEN- SOURCE AND ACADEMIA/INDUSTRY INITIATIVES

text: I.1 STANDARDISATION Table 20 provides the standardisation efforts on NFV and SDN from different telecom industry and bodies. It covers the following standards [22]. Table 20: NFV standardisation Standardisation Body Focus 3GPP SA3 Threat analysis, requirements on security, security architecture and protocol specifications Security monitoring and administration for NFV ETSI ISG NFV Security assessment for NFV platform Etc. GSMA 5G trust model, NESAS, NFV threat model, etc. IETF Network virtualisation overlay, dynamic service chaining, network service header OPNFV NFV Open Platform/eCOMP/OPNFV Community TestLabs ONAP Linux Foundation OSM Open-Source MANO (management and orchestration) IEEE Standard for software defined networking and network function virtualisation (SDN/NFV) security NGMN 5G security requirements (DoS protection, network slicing, MEC) 156 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 I.2 OPEN-SOURCE PROJECTS IN 5G There are numerous open-source projects across multiple domains of infrastructure, management, control, access and core. Determining the applicability of open source to an appropriate domain can be overwhelming. Table 21 provides a snapshot of some projects to be considered when determining the applicability of open source across different layers of the 5G network [22], [7], [105], [106]. Table 21: Open source projects in 5G Project Area Focus Description Link

text: The mission of OCP is ‘to apply the benefits of open source to hardware and rapidly increase the pace of innovation in, near and around the datacentre and beyond.’ OCP’s Telecom Working Group has developed http://www.opencompute.org/about/ocp-adoption Open compute the CG-OpenRack-19 specification. This specification offers operators of Infrastructure Hardware http://www.eenewseurope.com/news/open-compute-projectsproject (OCP) telecom datacentres the benefits of open platform standards combined with the carrier-grade and environmental enhancements required for first-carrier-grade-specs edge computing, which will be one of the most important building blocks for successful 5G deployments.

text: DANOS is an open and flexible alternative to traditional networking

text: Disaggregated

text: Operating operating systems. It will support a network operating system framework network operating Infrastructure https://www.danosproject.org system that leverages existing open-source resources and complementary

text: system (DANOS)

text: platforms such as switches and white box routers.

text: Operating Linux Infrastructure Linux enables white box to be used in carrier grade networks. https://www.linuxfoundation.org/projects/linu x/ system

text: Berkley software Operating BSD is an operating system (also includes the kernel) which has been Infrastructure http://www.bsd.org distribution (BSD) system derived from the Unix operating system.

text: P4 is an open-source initiative designed primarily to provide a declarative language for interacting with networking forwarding planes. P4 programs P4 Infrastructure Hardware specify how a switch processes the packets. P4 controls silicon processor https://p4.org chips in network forwarding devices such as switches, routers and network interface cards.

text: The VPP platform is an extensible framework that provides out-of-the-box production quality switch or router functionality. It is the open-source VPP Infrastructure Network https://fd.io version of Cisco's Vector Packet Processing (VPP) technology, a high performance, packet-processing stack that can run on commodity CPUs.

text: The O-RAN alliance uses two themes: ‘openness and intelligence’ for next generation wireless networks and beyond. ‘Building a more cost- O-RAN Access Control Radio effective, agile RAN requires openness. Open interfaces are essential to https://www.o-ran.org/ enable smaller vendors and operators to quickly introduce their own services’ and ‘intelligence networks will become increasingly complex with the advent of 5G, densification and richer and more demanding

text: 157 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: applications. To tame this complexity, we cannot use traditional human intensive means of deploying, optimising and operating a network. Instead, networks must be self-driving, they should be able to leverage new learning-based technologies to automate operational network functions and reduce OPEX’.

text: Openair5G is an open software that gathers a community of developers https://gitlab.eurecom.fr/oai/openairinterface 5g/wikis/home Openair5G Access control Radio from around the world, who work together to build wireless cellular radio access network (RAN) and core network (CN) technologies. https://openairinterface.org

text: TIP focuses on decoupling the RAN control plane from the user plane,

text: Telecom infra

text: Access control Radio building a modular RAN software stack that uses commodity hardware https://telecominfraproject.com

text: project (TIP)

text: and publishing open north- and south-bound interfaces.

text: Wireless Openair CN Core network core Openair CN is for implementing 4G LTE EPC and 5G NGC. https://gitlab.eurecom.fr/oai/openairinterface 5g/wikis/home network

text: M-CORD is an open-source reference solution for operators deploying 5G. It is built on the CORD infrastructure platform, which brings datacentre economics and cloud agility to operator networks.

text: SDN M-CORD transforms the mobile network by disaggregating and M-CORD Core network virtualising cellular network functions, as well as operator-specific https://www.opennetworking.org/m- cord/ controller services. M-CORD lays the foundation for 5G networks and services through support for disaggregated and virtualised EPC, end-to-end slicing from RAN to EPC, mobile edge computing and a programmable radio access network.

text: ODL is set to provide dynamic services in the era of 5G by optimising OpenDayLight Management & SDN softwarised and virtualised networks in order to meet the continuously https://www.opendaylight.org (ODL) control controller evolving service demands of the end-users.

text: ONOS can enable the network slicing concept through VNF composition Management & SDN ONOS in the central office where tenants can easily create network services https://onosproject.org control controller using northbound abstractions.

text: Management & OpenMANO provides a practical implementation of the NFV MANO OpenMANO MANO https://github.com/nfvlabs/openmano control reference architecture.

text: Management & OSM MANO OSM is MANO with SDN control, multi-site and multi-VIM capability. https://osm.etsi.org control

text: Management & OPNFV facilitates the development of multi-vendor NFV solutions across OPNFV MANO https://www.opnfv.org control various open-source ecosystems.

text: Management & ECOMP or enhanced control, orchestration, management and policy, ECOMP MANO control provides the necessary automation platform that enables aggressive https://about.att.com/innovationblog/linux_foundation

text: 158 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: virtualisation goals across enterprise, infrastructure, mobility and

text: consumer use cases to be achieved

text: Management & T-NOVA MANO T-NOVA is an open-source MANO stack for NFV. http://www.t-nova.eu/open-source/ control

text: Management & Open Baton is a an extensible and customisable NFV MANO-compliant Open Baton MANO https://openbaton.github.io control framework.

text: Management & Cloudify is an open-source orchestration platform and a widely deployed, Cloudify MANO 129 https://cloudify.co control production-grade implementation of the TOSCA standard.

text: Management & MANO, Zoom is aimed at modernising OSS/BSS models and introducing faster ZOOM https://www.tmforum.org control OSS/BSS responses to service problems and opportunities.

text: CloudNFV is an open platform for implementing network functions Management & CloudNFV MANO virtualisation (NFV) based on cloud computing and software defined https://www.cloudnfv.com control networking (SDN) technologies in a multi-vendor environment.

text: The OpenNFV programme is an open approach that allows HP and

text: external partners, such as network equipment providers and independent Management & HP OpenNFV MANO software vendors, to take advantage of the open and standards-based https://www.hp.com/ae-en/cloud/nfv-overview.html control NFV reference architecture, HP OpenNFV Labs, and the HP OpenNFV

text: partner ecosystem of applications and services.

text: Management & Intel’s open network platform (Intel ONP) for servers is designed to make https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/communications/open- Intel ONP MANO control it easier to test and deploy SDN and NFV solutions. network-platform-server-datasheet.html

text: The Open Orchestrator Project (OPEN-O) is an open source project

text: backed by the Linux Foundation that enables telecommunications and Management & OPEN-O MANO cable operators to effectively deliver end-to-end services across network https://www.openhub.net/p/open-o control functions virtualisation (NFV) infrastructure, as well as software defined

text: network (SDN) and legacy network services.

text: Management & ExperiaSphere MANO ExperiaSphere is an open-source universal MANO architecture. http://www.experiasphere.com control

text: The Open Network Automation Platform (ONAP) project automates 5G Management & ONAP MANO using software defined networking (SDN) and network functions https://www.onap.org control virtualisation (NFV) technologies.

text: The SONATA NFV platform is a flexible and integrated platform that

text: Management & allows the creation of a versatile and modular ecosystem that serves to https://www.sonata-nfv.eu/content/agile-development-testing- SONATA MANO control service developers and testers, telecom operators or vertical industries, and-orchestration-services-5g-virtualized-networks

text: managing the full lifecycle of network services. The SONATA NFV

text: platform encompasses everything from development to network services

text: 159 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: testing and their deployment and orchestration in a 5G infrastructure.

text: Kubernetes is a container orchestration system for automating application

text: deployment, scaling and management. In the parlance of ETSI’s NFV

text: Management & architecture, it performs the role of the container infrastructure service Kubernetes CISM https://kubernetes.io control management (CISM) function (which performs equivalent ‘virtualised

text: resource management’ as VIMs do, but for the container deployment

text: case as described in ETSI GR NFV-IFA 029 and ETSI GS NFV-IFA 040).

text: OpenStack is a cloud operating system that controls large pools of

text: Management & compute, storage and networking resources throughout a datacentre, all OpenStack VIM https://www.openstack.org control managed and provisioned through APIs with common authentication

text: mechanisms.

text: Management & Docker is a set of platforms as a service product that use OS-level Docker NFVI https://www.docker.com control virtualisation to deliver software in packages called containers.

text: KVM (for kernel-based virtual machine) is a full virtualisation solution for Management & KVM NFVI Linux on x86 hardware containing virtualisation extensions (Intel VT or https://www.linux-kvm.org/page/Main_Page control AMD-V).

text: Xen is a type-1 hypervisor, providing services that allow multiple Management & XEN NFVI computer operating systems to execute on the same computer hardware https://xenproject.org control concurrently.

text: Citrix hypervisor provides a highly reliable and secure open-source Management & CITRIX NFVI virtualisation platform for cloud, server and desktop virtualisation https://www.citrix.com control infrastructures.

text: Network PNDA (network Management & PNDA is a scalable, open-source big data analytics platform analytics http://pnda.io analytics platform) control for networks and services. platform

text: Whitebox OpenSwitch is a Linux Foundation project with the mission to deliver a Management & OpenSwitch NOS, virtual turnkey switching software solution based on the OPX open-source https://www.openswitch.net control switch network operating system (NOS).

text: Management & The Juju VNF manager enables the Open Baton NFVO to interoperate JuJu VNFM https://github.com/openbaton/juju-vnfm control with Juju as a generic VNFM.

text: FD.io (Fast data – input/output), the universal data plane, is a collection

text: Management & Data plane of several projects and libraries to amplify the transformation that began FD.io https://fd.io control acceleration with the data plane development kit (DPDK) to support flexible,

text: programmable and composable services on a generic hardware platform.

text: DPDK is a set of libraries used to accelerate packet processing on DPDK (fast packet Management & Data plane multiple-core CPUs. DPDK facilitates the quicker expansion of high- https://www.dpdk.org processing) control acceleration speed data packet networking applications.

text: 160 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 I.3 STANDARDS VS OPEN-SOURCE PROJECTS In 5G Americas - The Status of Open Source for 5G [105] it is stated that there are quite a few similarities between the standards and open-source paradigms. Both have the objectives of increasing interoperability, reducing costs and facilitating the establishment of a healthy business ecosystem. The difference has to do with the method to achieve those goals. Historically, standards have been developed using consensus-based collaboration in a process that required written documentation of the specific standard (for example, a specification, protocol, an application protocol interface (API)). This is no different than open-source projects, with the exception that for open source, contributions are in the form of running code. Usually, the collaboration process in standards is a very transparent one based on less transparent or even proprietary implementations. Open-source projects can bring implementation transparency during the harmonisation or standardisation process, as well as after the finalisation of a standard as a way to establish implementations as reference. Therefore, open-source projects should be considered complementary to the development of standards, as a way to accelerate and improve the process of creating interoperable solutions. Figure 21 shows where standards and open-source initiatives work together to benefit vendors, service providers and end users. Combined with automation tools, continuous testing and integration, as well as broad adoption of DevOps within large organisations, this combination can be a powerful catalyst for innovation and rapid development . Figure 21: Open source projects and standard organisations 161 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022 I.4 ACADEMIA & INDUSTRY PROJECTS Table 22 gives a summary of academia and industry 5G projects focusing on SDN/NFV [22]. Table 22: Academia and industry 5G projects focusing on SDN/NFV Project Area Link 162 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: Multi-service and context-aware adaptation of network functions to support a variety of services and corresponding QoE/QoS 5G-NORMA https://5g-ppp.eu/5g-norma/ requirements.

text: 5G-MEDIA A flexible network architecture that provides dynamic and flexible UHD (4K/8K) content distribution over 5G CDNs. http://www.5gmedia.eu

text: Employs network slicing to support the orchestration of both access and core network functions, and analytics to support a variety of 5G-MoNArch https://5g-monarch.eu use cases in vertical industries such as automotive, healthcare, and media.

text: Develops programmable 5G network infrastructure that supports multi-tenancy, decreasing network management OPEX whilst SESAME https://5g-ppp.eu/sesame/ increasing the QoS and QoE and security.

text: MATILDA Provides orchestration of 5G-ready applications and network services over sliced programmable platforms. https://www.matilda-5g.eu

text: 5G- Develops an SDN/NFV-based 5G network architecture that meets the requirements of specific vertical industries (e.g. eHealth, http://5g-transformer.eu Transformer automotive, industry 4.0 and media).

text: Designs 5G transport architectural solutions that support multi-domain orchestration among multiple network operators or service 5G-Crosshaul https://5g-ppp.eu/xhaul/ providers (e.g. multiple tenants).

text: 5G-XHaul Develops a scalable SDN control plane and mobility aware demand prediction models for optical or wireless 5G networks. https://5g-ppp.eu/5g-xhaul/

text: CogNET Dynamically adapts to network resources of VNFs whilst minimising performance degradations to fulfil SLA or ELAs requirements. https://5g-ppp.eu/cognet/

text: Develops a software-defined converged fixed 5G mobile network architecture that offers both multi-technology and multi-operator CHARISMA https://5g-ppp.eu/charisma/ features.

text: SaT5G Provides integrated management and orchestration of network slices in 5G SDN/NFV based satellite networks. https://www.sat5g-project.eu

text: Develops a cognitive network control, management and orchestration framework that supports infrastructure sharing across multiple SLICENET https://slicenet.eu operator domains in SDN/NFV-enabled 5G networks.

text: SONATA Enables integrated management and control to be part of the dynamic design of the softwarised 5G network architecture. https://5g-ppp.eu/sonata/

text: COHERENT Delivers efficient radio resource modelling and management in programmable radio access networks. https://5g-ppp.eu/coherent/

text: 5G Exchange Enables cross-domain orchestration of services over multiple administrations or over multi-domain single administrations. https://www.the5gexchange.com

text: As a part of a 5G PPP programme, VirtuWind develops and demonstrates SDN and NFV ecosystems, based on an open, modular VIRTUWIND and secure framework showcasing a prototype for intra-domain and interdomain scenarios in real wind parks as a representative use https://5g-ppp.eu/virtuwind/ case of industrial networks, and validates the economic viability of the solution demonstrated.

text: The goal of the 5G Exchange (5GEx) project is to enable cross-domain orchestration of services over multiple administrations or over 5GEX https://5g-ppp.eu/5gex/ multi-domain single administrations.

text: 5GCity focuses on how common smart city infrastructure (i.e. small cells and processing power at the very edge of networks) can 5GCITY https://www.5gcity.eu bring benefit to both players based on resource sharing and end-to-end virtualisation, pushing the cloud model to the extreme edge.

text: 163 NFV SECURITY IN 5G February 2022

text: 5G!Pagoda represents the next evolution step in softwarised networks as supported by NFV and SDN and aimed at the 5G network 5G!Pagoda https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/723172 evolution.

text: 164 -N -EN -045 -22 -06 TP ABOUT ENISA The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, ENISA, is the Union’s agency dedicated to achieving a high common level of cybersecurity across Europe. Established in 2004 and strengthened by the EU Cybersecurity Act, the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity contributes to EU cyber policy, enhances the trustworthiness of ICT products, services and processes with cybersecurity certification schemes, cooperates with Member States and EU bodies and helps Europe prepare for the cyber challenges of tomorrow. Through knowledge sharing, capacity building and awareness raising, the Agency works together with its key stakeholders to strengthen trust in the connected economy, to boost resilience of the Union’s infrastructure and, ultimately, to keep Europe’s society and citizens digitally secure. More information about ENISA and its work can be found here: www.enisa.europa.eu. ISBN 978-92-9204-557-9 doi: 10.2824/166009