Ecocycles the basis of sustainable urban development : a report from the Environmental Advisory Council (Jo 1968:A)

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A Contribution Sweden and

from

its 286 local authorities to the United Nations

Conference

on Environment and Development

in Brazil, June 1992.

Statens offentliga utredningar

@@ 199243 @ Miljö- och naturresursdepartementet Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources

Ecocycles

The Basis of Sustainable

Urban Development

A from the Environmental Advisory Council Report

Jo 1968A

Stockholm 1992

The Basis Sustainable Urban

Development

MÃNSSON Editor TOMMY

V ÅSVENSKA KOMMUNFORBUNDET The Swedish Association ofLocaI Authorities

ECOCYCL S SOU 199243

WE MUST BRING THE ECOLOGICAL CYCLES FULL COURSE FOREWORD -

CITIES AS INTEGRAL PARTS OF ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS What an ecological cycle 11 We must bring the ecological cycles full course 13 We must seek holistic solutions I4 We must apply the precautionary principle 14 Let us ask the right questions 15

Järnbrott- example of solution multiplier 16

an a

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK A PUBLIC DUTY 18 -

Sweden a favoured nation 23

- Forceful legislation 24 The individual in focus 26 Local autonomy 27 New actors and new roles 28 Urban renewal 29

The infrastructure determined urban development 30

Infrastructure renewal 34 We still need planning but kinds 34 — new

URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES 36

Tusenskönan a block of apartments in Västerås with full

— ecological cycles 38 GREEN INFRASTRUCTURES VITAL INTERLINKING 40 —

The Aspö city farm 43

Halmstad green structures and nitrogen purification 44 - WATER AND SEWAGE TWO WET CHALLENGES 47 — MarkÄlekulla purification 48 - at source Stockholm s water a unique environment 50 -

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

WASTE INCENTIVES TO CHANGE 54 - Borlänge and 55 This report be ordered from energy waste may -

Eslöv co-operation between municipality and industry Allmänna Förlaget which

-

for bio-energy 57 publishes otticial government ENERGY REFOCUSING ON SOLAR, WIND AND BIOFUELS 58 reports and departmental series

-

Energy consultancy important aspect of policy SOU and Ds.

an energy in Falkenberg 62 Address TRAFFIC TOWARDS NEW MODES AND NEW FUELS 64

- Allmänna Förlaget

Ethanol buses in Stockholm 67 Customer Services

S-l 06 47 STOCKHOLM THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS Phone +46-8-739 96 30 AND THE POWER OF EXAMPLES 68 Telefax +46-8-739 95 48

Ystad city and countryside in co-operation 71 - ÖREBRO WIDE-RANGING ENVIRONMENTAL WORK 72 The has also been - report

Active promotion 74 published Swedish version

a Ladugcirdséingen, in Örebro 75 a new area SOU I99242

Resource minimisation 78 Kretslopp. Basen for hållbar Bicycles the ultimate environmental alternative 79 stadsutveckling.

— Jointly-owned cars mean less car travel 81 THE GÖTEBORG ENVIRONMENT PROJECT A CATALYST 84 — Consumer power 86

The municipality as a consumer 87 TIMRÅ CLEANING UP FROM OLD POLLUTION 90 - Lessons to be learned 92 ÖVERTORNEÅ INITIATING THE ECO—MUNICIPALITY - PROJECT 94

The bottom—up perspective 96 Cover illustration and

chapter opening illustrations

TIME FOR ACTION NOW 98 - MARIA UDRIOT.

Regional co—operation in Europe 100 Translation LINDA SCHENCK

Global networks for local work 103 ISBN 9I-38-13048-3

IULA a worldwide networkfor actors at all levels 104

- ISSN 0375-25OX

EDITORS AFTERWORD Norstedts Tryckeri AB i 992

SOU 199243

WE MUST BRING

THE ECOLOGICAL CYCLES

FULL COURSE

86 per cent of the population of Sweden lives in cities, and half

Today,

of all the people in the world are city dwellers. We have made our cities centres of knowledge, trade and power. The more important cities have become, the greater force of attraction they excert, drawing more and more people to them. Cities are, however, also centres of poverty, health and environmental problems the places where these problems become visible and acute. From a strictly ecological viewpoint, cities have become impossible as they are totally dependent on their surroundings to continue growing. T0 survive, cities have to import their food, energy and other resources from constantly expanding surrounding areas. In doing this, cities consume more and more resources and export corresponding amounts of residual products such as air and water pollution, and solid waste. This negative trend has to be broken. In the long run, our ecological cycles must come full course humanity to survive. Today, nature cannot remedy the existing imbalance between urban and rural areas. If we want to save our cities and ourselves from ecological breakdowns, high time to begin seeing our cities from the perspective of ecological cycles. Strategies for urban development cannot be applied in a limited sense to cities only they will have to be applied to their rural — surroundings. as well. Shaping a sustainable society requires the involvement, active participation and co-operation of all society’s actors the state, — municipalities, trade and industry, and individuals. This means, inter alia, that everyone must have the right to receive information and to participate in democratic decision—making processes. Decisions should be made and measures implemented as close as possible to those affected by them. This makes the local level fundamental, because there all agreements, policies and programmes, international and national will ultimately be transformed into concrete action. The purpose of this book to raise awareness of the extensive efforts being made in the Swedish municipalities to improve the environment. We have selected a number of examples of creative thinking, both technological and organisational. We are aware that these examples are not always the best solutions to all our problems, and that the approaches and instruments used will have to keep changing in pace with development and change. our ambition to show what being done here and now to achieve more sustainable development. We are also aware that local situations vary widely, as do the existing points of departure, and that this true both

sou |99243 ECOCYCLES

FOREWORD

Mr. Lars-Eric Ericsson and Ms. Görel Thurdin. Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

within Sweden and when comparing Sweden with other countries with different historical and cultural backgrounds as well as different technical and financial resources. our hope that the examples presented in this book will serve as an inspiration and a challenge, encouraging development and creative thinking elsewhere, in Sweden and abroad. we are to achieve sustainable urban development, we must all do our best, wherever we are active, to implement measures to bring our ecological cycles full course.

Stockholm, May 1992

Görel Thurdin Lars-Eric Ericsson

Sweden’s Minister for Chairman, Physical Planning and The Swedish Vice Chairman of the Association of Environmental Advisory Council Local Authorities

From an ecological perspective, cities are impossible — they can only

function in interplay

with outlying rural areas. We can learn how to achieve sustainable interaction

from

the ecological cycles in nature.

ECOCYCLES SOU 1992143

ities, cultures and civilisations are concepts which have gone hand in hand, historically, and which we subconsciously tend to equate with one another. In human civilisation, cities have become the centres of knowledge, trade and power. Cities mirror the philosophies and understandings of their times, well to extent being locked into as as — some — their historical heritage. But cities also subject to the laws of nature. are Today we are seeing more and more of what happens when cities shortsightedly ignore these laws environmental problems simply shifted — are in time and space. When we regard cities as parts of ecological systems, we can analyse their potential to move towards sustainability. In these terms, city be a may defined as a system surviving its ability to import most of what needs. on Cities satisfy very few of their needs themselves. They import food, energy Imagine putting an enormous and other resources both from the rural in their vicinities and from far areas

bell iar over a city. What would

distant nations. Cities consume and export the residual products happen resources Just as no animal can as air and water pollution and solid waste. cope on its own, no city can manage without its outlying rural areas.

Illustration BIRGITELIASSON

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

WHAT IS AN ECOLOGICAL CYCLE CITIES

AS INTEGRAL PARTS Nature made of ecosystems, or natural cycles. Take the example of OF ECOLOGICAL up the fox. The fox eats the field mouse that, in turn, has eaten various plants. SYSTEMS The plants live on photosynthesis between carbon dioxide and water under the influence of sunlight. Most of the nutrition the fox gets from eating the field mouse very quickly returned to the earth as urine and excrement, which are broken down into carbon dioxide and water, which again serve as a basis for plant photosynthesis. Thus an ecological cycle has run full course. Examining this ecological cycle in physical terms, we can see plant photosynthesis a resource-generating process. allows plants to grow, as

with sunlight as its fuel source of energy.

Field mouse

Plants

A natural ecological cycle. The RESIDUAL yellow arrow indicates a PRODUCTS Breakdown resource-generating process, carbon products and the green ones resource dioxide , degrading processes. and water Illustration BIRGIT ELIASSON

The resource-generating in the ecological cycle formed by processes the plants, the field and the fox are simultaneously balanced by mouse various degrading The field mouse consumes and digests processes. plants, and the fox and digests the field mouse. The urine and consumes excrement of both animals and dead vegetation are all degraded. Processes of degradation also give rise to solid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Another example of ecological system the hydrological cycle. an Water renewable constantly running in a global course, and a resource, anthropogenic pollution of part of this ecocycle may impact on other any parts. Combustion example of degradation process. Wood burns, for one a

ll

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

exhaust a

fumes

eva- et evaporation porationt

groun waterwater course

Water a prerequisite for life. instance, with the aid of the in the air, and the results in ash, oxygen process When water polluted, this smoke, and heat. This is, in principle, the same process our bodies carry causes an automatic chain out when they digest the food we eat, although takes place at a slower reaction impacting on the flora and fauna and human tempo. even on health. Water in constant Smoke and ashes contain the same atoms as wood and oxygen, but movement, always on its way difficult change the of smoke and ash. We simply heat more to state cannot somewhere. also chemically them, i.e. add energy, to make new wood and oxygen. active, and has unique solvent In order to bring the cycle full course, the more disorganised atoms of pro erties. All this means that pol emigrate from soil the waste products the smoke and ash have to be arranged into the utants to more the ground water, lakes, organised forms the wood and oxygen. This organisational process watercourses and the

sea. resource generation carried out with the help of the sun as photosynthesis.

From MALIN FALKENMARK. Plants are more effective than the most sophisticated contemporary anthropomorphic technological systems, by order of magnitude raised an to the power of ten, when comes to the reorganisation of atoms at this level Other resources and waste have corresponding For example, processes. sooner or later all steel constructions give way to rust. In this the process iron becomes water soluble and spread into the environment. virtually impossible to find a technical process for transforming this disseminated iron into new iron objects, no matter how much energy we have available. On the other hand, the sun powered and resource— generating processes in nature are extremely effective. For example, they precipitate iron into bog ore at the bottom of lakes. Similarly, most of the resources stored in the earth, including fossil fuels, ores and minerals, have come into being through processes ultimately fuelled by the sun. Contemporary societies use these finite resources at a pace many thousand times faster than the pace at which these resources recreated. are This means that sooner or later we will find ourselves in shortagesituation. a An even greater current problem the enormous collection of waste which results from nature’s inability to keep pace with human consumption in transforming the waste to new resources.

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

We also create new substances, alien to nature, which often highly CITIES are stable chemical compounds. Nature’ generatin cannot AS INTEGRAL PARTS s resource— g processes handle them; they are foreign to the ecological cycle. S0 alien substances OF ECOLOGICAL often have the effect of poison for the highly-refined equipment that SYSTEMS living cells. Another very common phenomenon today that naturallyoccurring substances reach unnatural levels, with similar negative effects. The societ we live in not a sustainable in the long one, run.

RESOURCE . High degre p e. of order and structure

GENERATION DEGRADATION Sun-fuelled Natural and Schematic sketch of natural processes technical ecological cycles. The yellow processes arrow indicates resource generation, and the green one degradation. Resourcegenerating processes are characterised by being sunfuelled. An ecological cycle has PRODUCTS - full when the g AND WASTE come course ‘Vr resource-generating and Jointly, lower - degrading in degree of order processes are equilibrium. and structure Illustration.BIRGITELIASSON

WE MUST BRING THE ECOLOGICAL

CYCLES FULL COURSE

Cities are primary contributors to the man—made of degradation processes that are growing increasingly dominant, and to the increasing at pace which the space for and capacity of powered resource-generating sun processes are shrinking. The long—tenn production of the land, resources the forests and the seas are being reduced, and thousands of species are being made extinct. we allow the gap between the processes of generating and resource degradation to go on growing, we will gradually destroy the survival potential of higher organisms. We must exploit our natural resources selectively, to allow them to be generated as part of our ecological cycles. The waste from certain types of biological resources can, for example, be used for generation. resource Waste of a non-biological origin, such as metal packaging materials, crushed glass, used batteries, etc. will not re—organise into new resources on its own. We can return this waste to natural powered cycles by sun separating at source. We will be able to bring ecological cycles full our course with the aid of biofuels, wind and hydropower, solar etc. energy,

ECOCYCLES sou 199243

CITIES WE MUST SEEK

AS INTEGRAL PARTS

HOLISTIC SOLUTIONS

OF ECOLOGICAL

SYSTEMS Goldsmith, British ecologist, coined the expression You cant Edward a

do only one thing, the sense that anything we do has numerous

and must always take them into account. Most things consequences, we done in society are done because they will be advantageous to someone.

But in societies highly sectoralised as ours, easy to let ourselves be so blinded by what advantageous to us, and ignore the disadvantages that

choices give rise to in other sectors. This how most of our our environmental problems came into being.

Goldsmith discussed solution multipliers measures which solve — several problems at a time. Looking for solution multipliers means

implementing holistic view of mankind, nature and society. implies a having both-and perspective on satisfying human needs sustainably. a The opposite solution multipliers are problem multipliers measures — which solve one or more problems, but which simultaneously create may several Problem multipliers are illusory solutions, with an new ones. either-or perspective, symptomatic solutions which conceal or

counteract treatment of the fundamental problem.

WE MUST APPLY

THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE

Today’s environmental situation the result of decisions made in our

society decades ago. In many cases takes several decades for one or more the full consequences of a measure on the environment to become clear.

Nor always possible to predict such consequences exactly.

Although nature does have a fantastic capacity for self—healing, that

Illustration. BIRGITELIASSON ability has its limits. Many types of environmental damage are extremely

difficult or expensive to remedy once the harm done. Large scale soil

acidification one good example. also very costly to clean up local

land or waters that have been polluted with toxicants. And virtually Trees are ood examples of im P ossible to recreate s P ecies ort YPes of g enetic variation once the Y have natural so ution - multipliers. - - Trees provide with protection, been 10St. us

beGUfY, energy find clean all - The complexity of natural systems makes the whole picture even more

å

Iuvsiemxrfilg ;fIiI° än

difficult Many factors work in and work against

to grasp. interplay, some

Y

amou

another well. We do know everything need to know,

‘increasing

one as not we nor can from the of but operate

choose

Wm, ;n we, one two strategies on.

glrçen space ,reas our we can

cmes trees The first 1s to simplify the interrelations, entirely neglecting the factors as mume noise and which cannot be predicted. According to this strategy, which processes ‘I°° he E has often been applied in the simply experiment full scale, at

z

past, we Wu t er

hoping the consequences will at least be remediable, and not too grave.

The alternate strategy to choose to apply the precautionary principle, o P,-aged Pe°p|e and animais provide shelter from the wind refraining from implementing we are uncertain as to whether 0 measures ° beaufify OUI Cifies they will do damage to the environment and life-sustaining systems. our

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

LET US ASK THE RIGHT QUESTIONS CITIES

AS INTEGRAL PARTS Twentieth century social has led to environmental problems of progress OF ECOLOGICAL increasingly wide scope, that and difficult to solve. One are more more SYSTEMS thing that clear that the solutions implemented to date insufficient. are They have often been nothing but of postponing shifting the a way or problem, with the result that has gradually resurfaced in a new, even more problematic gestalt. One of the main reasons that society has failed, to date, to solve its environmental problems that the economic system today incompatible with demands for long-tenn sustainable development. Because there seldom a price tag on environmental effects, they rarely in appear calculations or on balance sheets.

Using environmental impact assessments EIAs when major decisions are made, and levying more environmental surcharges, green taxes,

are the main instruments available for moving society in the direction of greater sustainability. However, the these instruments being way are now used in Sweden and elsewhere only the first step towards the far very more extensive, integrated action will need environmental programme we effects are to be made visible. Demanding EIAs before decisions made will not solve problems are any alone. An EIA just provides facts and figures. When decision made, a whether by an individual, a local organisation national government, or a environmental issues will be weighed in the balance against other issues, including social and financial ones. to towards sustainable we are move development, we must have greater insight into the of being consequences nonchalant about the environment, and must have the will to change. we But how can we know a measure, investment urban an or an development project will result in increased environmental problems in the long run What are the most important questions to ask and answer before a decision made We can find these things by making a focused analysis asking - a number of basic questions about potential effects the six question below can be answered with yes, know that the planned project we or measure leads towards sustainable development

l Does reduce energy consumption and move us towards greater of . use

renewable sources of energy

Does increase biodiversity and the resource-generating capacity of nature

Does bring ecological cycles full course

4. Does keep us within the limits of what mankind and nature can withstand

Does solve more problems than creates

Does observe the precautionary principle

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

Järnbrott- of solution multiplier an example a

hen apartment house in the Järnbrott area project. A few examples of real and potential profits are

W

an in Göteborg was renovated five years ago, given below. solar cells were installed on the roof, and coupled Insulation improvements have meant energy to circulating air heating system. A greenhouse was also conservation, and 40 per cent of the energy needed to heat a built along the southern facade of the building, and the the building now available from the solar heat, a tenants offered the opportunity of raising vegetables renewable source of energy. The people living in the were there. Theirinterest in gardening proved to be so great that the building who now grow their own vegetables contribute lawn adjacent to the building was converted into allotments to energy conservation in terms of saved food transport which, in turn, gave rise to a need for fertilisers and other soil costs. The composting project means that less waste has improvement materials, and so the apartment dwellers began to be transported from the building. The transportation composting their organic household waste. required for annual waste collection just from the Hisingen area of Goteborg alone equivalent to twentyfive trips around the world We can also assume that the time people spend gardening means savings in transportation to and from other recreational activities. The interest in gardening and the consequent enrichment of the social life of the people involved, may also mean that they are less interested in material consumption, which also positive from an energy—saving point of view. When the apartment dwellers decrease their energy consumption, raise some of their own vegetables and some of their own waste, the land surrounding manage the city bears correspondingly less of a burden for these functions. On a larger scale, this would be beneficial to biological diversity.

he gardening and composting give rise to a complete

T

on—site organic cycle. The fact that a considerable portion of the heating needed for the building supplied by the solar heat instead of by combustion of Photo ARKITE fossil fuels improves the balance between regenerative CHRISTERS and degenerative processes. The advantages described above all contribute to The building three stories high, with twenty—four reductions in capita resource consumption and energy per apartments. Although there are twenty to thirty thousand use. such buildings in Sweden, no others have yet followed this The renovation of the building in Järnbrott a soluexample. One probable explanation that the sectoral view tion multiplier. may be of special interest to highlight we generally apply, rather than the holistic one we could the conceivable social, cultural and pedagogical benefits. apply, makes difficult for us to realise all the benefits this The people living in the building have gained a renovation has brought to the inhabitants and to society as a strengthened sense of community, they derive pleasure whole. The only economic benefits which show up in the from gardening and seeing things grow, and they gain accounts are the profits accruing from heating energy savings. concrete insight into what means to bring ecological And not even that profit may appear in the accounts, owing cycles full cource. to the fact that district heating rates are paid on the basis of Finally, this kind of small—scale cultivation may be a high fixed tariff and a low consumption—related one. done with minimum use of chemical pesticides and By a focused analysis possible to identify many other artificial fertilisers, which beneficial to the environment. benefits which have probably accrued from this renovation possible to apply the precautionary principle.

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

How the solar heating in a building in Järnbrott works Air heated by the suns in the solar panel the roof. 0 rays on 0 The air which has been heated by the sun fanned down inside all the outer walls through an air shaft between the old wall and the insulation. This hot air heats the inside walls. 0 On cold days may be necessary to use some additional heat from the old hot water heating system. 0 The greenhouse not technically connected with the solar y heating system, but extends the short Swedish summer, for the building and the people living in it. Architect CHRISTERSARKITEKTKONTOR, ASKIM

Illustration BIRGITELIASSON

17 2 12-0576

VIRONMENTAL

WORK

A PUBLIC DUTY

T0 build sustainable cities, all the in actors society must become actively involved the national government, local — governments, trade and industry, and individual citizens. In Sweden, the right public equal

of access gives everyone rights to share the benefits of nature. But the right also implies

obligations — we must handle nature on nature own terms this a public duty. —

SOU 199243

nvironmental protection a deeply rooted value. Sweden has a

E

tradition known as the right of public access, by virtue of which everyone may move freely about the countryside, and the love of nature this has engendered makes people active in safeguarding their landscape. In Sweden, a sound environment regarded as a basic human right. Environmental policy founded on this right, in accordance with democratic principles. As in other industrialised nations, Sweden’s environmental problems were first detected in urban areas. For this reason, the roots of Swedish environmental policy are in early twentieth century urban health care. At that time sanitation was a major problem in the cities, and city dwellers often suffered from poor health or serious illness. Waste water and refuse were transported from urban to rural areas, in the belief that lakes and watercourses served as natural means of purification. With the advent of sewage pipelines, the water closet came into use. Physicians advocated its speedy introduction, seeing as a solution to the grave urban health problems. Ironically, this early local health care work gave rise to new environmental problems on a regional scale. This was mainly because the early problems were simply shifted, from one place to another and from one generation to another, rather than being solved. During the 1980s, Swedish environmental policy began to change in various ways. Previously, the main aim had been to monitor and reduce major point emissions with local and regional effects. Now environmental work has shifted to cover diffuse emissions from traffic, agriculture, goods and materials. To achieve a sustainable development, environmental policies will have to focus more on finding means of solving problems at source, before they occur— we must begin to implement the precautionary principle. This altered view has also led to changes in the roles played by the state

Difficulty Invisible

l

We have been postponing dealing with our environmental problems. The methods we have

Q’

implemented in managin local environmental problems ave, instead, given rise to regional Visible and environmental ones, like acidification, forest death, the greenhouse effect, threatened species, and the depletion of the ozone layer. These environmental problems are more difficult to see and gras , well being harder Å as as to so ve. From NILS TIBERG. 19505 705 905 Time

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

Waste management was long the task of the local sanitation authorities. Until the earl

K

l900s, the iob was done

local farmers, who recycle most of the waste, or used for soil im rovement or as swine fo der. , 4 One small museum area in Stockholm reminds of what us like when the pigs used was what people did not a — predecessor of contemporary

separation small photo.

source V As waste quantities grew, railway transport of waste from urban organised. The areas was waste was taken to large outlying garbage stations, where there were also pigs to feed the ecocycle was brought — full course large photo.

Photo.STOCKHOLMSSTADSMUSEUM

ECOCYC LES SOU 199243

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK contra the municipalities, with increasing amounts of responsibility being -A PUBLIC DUTY shifted to the municipalities that problems will be able to be solved in so practice and more tangible steps taken towards shaping a society based on the principle of ecocycles. Politically, Sweden has long democratic tradition. Despite relatively a our small population, we have the most highly decentralised local administration in the world with 286 municipalities. Each municipality levies its own taxes and bears responsibility for many day—to—day aspects of life day nurseries, education, care of the elderly, libraries, waste management, sanitation, etc. The state subsidises the municipalities to extent for some this work. In most respects, also up to each municipality to make its own decisions with regard to land utilisation, what will be built and where, and the municipalities alone have the right to draw and adopt physical plans up for their areas. Since 1 January 1992, municipalities are also free to establish their own organisations, i.e. what agencies and boards they want to have. In the past, this structure was centrally determined in relation to legislation, and municipalities were required to have a building board and a health and

Number of Population per Population distribution amongst municipalities municipality in of as per cent Swedens 286 municipalities. cent of total total national population per 4

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

Sweden

- a favoured nation

he population of Sweden 8.5 million, and 86 per cent of these people live in cities. More than one-third of the total population lives in one of the three main metropolitan Stockholm, areas - Göteborg and Malmö. Sweden, as compared with many other countries, a favoured nation with regard to natural resources, and to the amount of land available for agriculture, forestry, recreation, etc. If Sweden’ s land were evenly distributed among the population, each inhabitant would have some 50,000 m2.

Distribution of land in Sweden Woodlands and mountainous land with conifers54%

Water 9 % excluding seas

. Mountains and i miscellaneous16% I

Built-upland and adjacent land 3

Agricultural land 8%

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK environment board, for example. Generally Speaking, Swedish mun- -A PUBLIC DUTY icipalities have a great deal of influence in many important areas. In the area of the environment, for example, each municipality responsible for - Comprehensive environmental planning pursuant to the Natural Resource Act and the Planning and Building Act. - Management both of operations which disrupt the environment and which contribute to improving such collection and treatment of as waste water and refuse. - Production of energy and water, and public transport. - Education on environmental issues in schools and pre—schools. - Dissemination of information about the environment in the municipality. ° Supervision of environmental and health protection pursuant to various statutes including the Environment Protection Act, the Health Protection Act, the Food Products Act, and the Chemical Products Act.

The division of responsibility that has gradually been introduced in Sweden in many areas, including the environment, that local means

influence strongly emphasised.This both the traditional

ensures democratic rights of individuals and also safeguards the rights of nature. Every individual in all his or her roles, in the city, in the countryside, at work or driving a car, must shoulder responsibility for the environment — we share our living environment with all species of plants and animals.

FORCEFUL LEGISLATION

Historically, the main role of the state in environmental work has been to make demands and monitor their implementation. Legislation, planning, and franchise issuing have been the main instruments of execution. The first environmental legislation took the form of health protection measures. Sweden was early to legislate in this with Public Health area, a Statute in l 874, the aim of which was to solve the health and environmental problems brought in the wake of industrialism and the consequent rapid increase in urbanisation. Its the Health Care Act, has most recent successor, been in effect since 1984. contains stipulations covering domestic hygiene, hygiene on public premises, hotels and swimming centres, well as as regulations for the water supply, water and air pollution, sanitation, animal care, etc. The Health Protection Act the instrument used to prevent the occurrence of sanitary inconveniences. The 1969 Environment Protection Act stipulates the conditions under which environmentally hazardous operations may be carried out. The Act quite generally worded, leaving the National Swedish Franchise Board for Environment Protection or the County Administrative Boards or municipalities to decide on individual cases of environmentally hazardous operations, and what level of pollution permitted for each plant. Permit reviews examine technical potential, economic feasibility, and environmental justification. A separate environment protection statute

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK —A PUBLIC DUTY

An umbrella for a better environment The following laws are subordinate to the Natural Resource Act 0 The Planning and Building Act 0 The Environment Protection Act 0 The Water Act I The Nature Conservation Act NATURRI-LSURSI.iG|’. 0 The Roads Act lagarom hur markhushållningmed har med NRL fått 0 The Electricity Act g resurserna en ny och bredare innebördb gerengemensam utgångspunkt för The Pipeline Act 0 som ska fattademellervilkenlag The Aviation Act 0 som åberopas. 0 The Peat Act NRLär särskiltviktigför V têzlösa de konflikter som uppstår vid förändringar den And the following will soon av yttr ‘lion. be made subordinate SERATSatt varavag för ochallmän The Navigation Route Act 0 dmpa. Lagens allmännabestämmelser The the Continental 0 Act on måste konkretiseras 1 planerochbeslut. Shelf En genomarbetad ochtydlig översiktsplan är ett viktigt stöd i detarbetet. planenkande I lntressena göms kon- 0 The Mineral Act gemensamma kretaochbegrlpliga.Därmedblir tillämpningen av NRL effek- NV.

regulates what type of activities must have a franchise to operate, what type must have permit from the County Administrative Board, and for what a type sufficient to notify the municipal board of health and environment. The current legislation on land planing and construction, the Natural Resource Act and the Planning and Building Act, has been effective since 1987. The purpose of the Natural Resource Act to achieve long—terrn economisation, particularly of land and water resources, taking ecological, social and socio—economic considerations into account, and safeguarding areas of national interest. The Planning and Building Act further reinforces the responsibility of the individual municipalities for physical planning. Every municipality must draw up a master plan accounting for its utilisation of land and water, planning developments, and the areas of national interest in the municipality. These plans then serve as guidelines for protecting areas of natural value. Sometimes sufficient to issue a construction ban pursuant to the planning and building act, while in other cases, the articles for protection

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

EN VIRONMENTAL WORK of nature pursuant to the Natural Resource Act be reserves must A PUBLIC DUTY implemented. - The Natural Resource Act the umbrella act, the piece of legislation with the highest priority in relation to all regulation of water and land utilisation. provides a common point of departure for decisions, irrespective of by what body they are taken or pursuant to what act. The Natural Resource Act particularly important in solving the conflicts that

Land, water and the physical arise when the outdoor environment changes. environment general shall be used

Special requirements have been adopted with view to increasing

to promote positive long-term a

so as from environmental consideration. According to these requirements,

economisation an ecological, new an

social and socio-economic point environmental impact assessment must be carried out before permit any view. can be granted pursuant to the Natural Resource Act and other Acts some

The Natural Resource Act, article well. Adoption of future municipal master plans will also be subject to

as the carrying out of environmental impact assessments.

THE INDIVIDUAL IN FOCUS

Political concern for environmental issues increased throughout the 1980s in Sweden and internationally. The environmental movement has grown stronger and more competent to serve as a driving force in society. People’ s interest in and involvement with environmental issues has also grown steadily. But up to now there has been far more global talk than local action. This makes the main challenge for the 1990s to transform the global perspective and the realisation that we are living on a planet with limited resources into practical action at the local level. Environmental problems are a mixture of large and small. Many measures can be implemented quickly and simply, while other problems cannot be solved without long—term, comprehensive changes in our social structure and lifestyles. Thus practical environmental work waiting to be done at all levels today, and every individual can participate in determining whether or not we can succeed in reversing the trend and moving in the direction of a sustainable society. There are already many examples of individuals shouldering responsibility for environmental issues, trying to develop alternative solutions, and placing demands on producers, public authorities and others to make environmental alternatives available. The great interest in ecological building and eco-municipalities are examples of local initiatives coming from the grass roots level. To date, environmental work has mainly been characterised by topa

down perspective, focusing on the Riksdag the Swedish parliament, the

government and the authorities. In the future probable that there will be more of a bottom—up view. One of the reasons for this perspective shift that now that there are fewer environmental disturbances from point sources, becoming clear that we must change our lifestyles and stop wasting our natural resources. This changes the role of the individual from passive to active, as well as increasing the role of the municipalities.

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

F

Local

autonomy

Swedish society based on the exercise of local autonomy by county councils and municipalities. The Swedish electorate appoints municipal representatives in general elections held every three years, at the same time as the members of the Swedish Riksdag Parliament are elected. Each of the 286 municipalities conducts its own affairs, subject to the general guidelines laid down in the Local Government Act. Each individual municipality finances its activities by taxation levied from municipal residents and by levying charges for various activities. Certain activities also qualify for State grants. As a result of the municipal power of taxation, taxation rates vary from one municipality to another. Swedens municipalities are going through a process of democratic transformation. Developments are moving from central control, towards a decentralisation of responsibilities and activities, within both the politic and administrative organisation. The relationship between the State and the local governments characterized by continuous collaboration in a multitude of forms. There are constant changes in the division of labor between these levels of government. up to the Swedish Government and Parliament to establish the overall framework of public activities. There general consensus that within these limits, the municipalities and county councils should enjoy a large measure of freedom to draw up and implement public programs on the basis of local conditions.

-¢ Illustration BIRGIT ELIASSON

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK The trend towards increasing local initiatives and will probably measures -A PUBLIC DUTY continue throughout the 90s. The fact that Swedish municipal budgets are being tightened up may also serve as a catalyst for an increased of sense responsibility for the local environment and for small—scale local solutions to problems relating to waste management, waste water and refuse, energy, etc.

NEW ACTORS AND NEW ROLES

The municipalities will go on bearing primary responsibility for ensuring the environmental quality of urban and rural environments, expanding on the existing involvement and interest in improving the local environment. Municipalities can engineer management of our natural capital in many ways in their role as authorities they regulate and monitor, in their role — as producers they supply water, energy, day care and parks, for example, and in their role as creative pioneers they can develop ideas, projects, new etc. In recent years, more and more municipalities have tried to find new forms for their environmental work. Some have begun to label themselves

During the l920s and 30s, dustbins in the yard began to be replaced with garbage chutes from storey of the every building. The Swedish cooperative apartment company HSB obtained patent that a made this possible. Today, HSB active in developing methods for source separation and apartment house blocks with full

ecocycles see the example of

Tusenskönan in Västerås. Photo HSBs Riksförbund.

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

eco-municipalities or environmental municipalities, to indicate their EN VIRONMENTAL WORK involvement. Their aim has been to draw attention to environmental issues --A PUBLIC DUTY both among municipal officials and the general public. This a way of signalling the priority of environmental issues, and the necessity of becoming involved in solving environmental problems. We can look to such municipalities to get ideas about how environmental work for the future can be carried out, as they are often at the cutting edge of developments. All these municipalities have begun by formulating environmental goals, following them up and revising them regularly. This may be a guiding principle for future environmental work. The role and responsibilities of the municipalities are also changing in step with increased decentralisation of responsibility and increased political interest in market solutions and privatisation of nationalised operations. Many municipalities are undergoing substantial restructuring today, and this may lead to radical changes in the ways municipal environmental work carried out. This work, driven primarily by financial and ideological interests rather than consideration for the environment, contains the potential both to impede and to promote sustainable development. This trend towards increased emphasis on the local level and toning down of the importance of the national level can be seen elsewhere in Europe as well. The principle of subsidiarity, implying that decisions are to be made at the lowest possible level, one expression of it. Municipalities are also tending to join forces regionally, finding various ways of strengthening their identity, attractiveness, and negotiating power. The Mälardalen region one example of such co-operation. These new, more dynamic regional bodies may, in the long run, be able to bring about substantial changes in the roles and responsibilities of regional organisations such as County Administrative Boards, local authorities and regional planning associations. Many housing companies are running ambitious programmes to interest and involve their tenants in working on their immediate environments. They are testing new ideas in building and housing. When these ideas become realities, they will imply new roles for the municipalities, and new responsibilities, for example for urban supply systems for water and sewage, garbage, energy. For instance, they obtain the right response from the authorities, tenants and the owners of apartment buildings may take over some of the operation and maintenance tasks in their local environments, such as the routine work which accounts for 70-80 per cent of the operating expenses of the parks administration.

URBAN RENEWAL

Structures and planning of building are constantly changing, although major shifts take time. Looking back a century, a great deal of change can be seen. One hundred years ago, cities were concentrated and often concentric, which facilitated transports. But the sanitary and health conditions in these densely-populated areas were already being criticised.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

The infrastructure determined urban

development

he Stockholm underground was expanded during a pe- outskirts of the city, with 30 per cent living in other

T

riod when the population of the region virtually doubled. municipalities. A forecast made that year predicted that Because the planning for the expansion of the under- more than half the population of the greater Stockholm ground system and of residential areas was co-ordinated, area would live beyond the city of Stockholm by the year most Stockholmers now live close to an underground sta- 1990. This trend spoke strongly in favour of efforts to cotion. ordinate public transportation in the greater Stockholm Stockholmers make extensive use of their mass transport area. system. At rush hour between 700 and 900 a.m. 70 per In 1963, Stockholm s City Commissioner for Finance cent of the people going to and from the city centre travel by Hjalmar Mehr presented a co-ordination proposal for the mass transportation. This high percentage attributable to municipalities in the greater Stockholm area, saying the co—ordinated planning of extended housing and the confidently Local government officials all over the underground and commuter train system during the expansive world will see us as a textbook example. This proposal period from 1945 to 1974. led to an agreement including the development of a However, since the mid-1980s travel by public transport public transport company, SL Stockholm Local Traffic, has dropped, and travel by car has increased. that now serves the whole of the greater Stockholm In the 19403 the greater Stockholm population increased region. Previously, there were a large number of private by 214,000, or 27 per cent. continued to increase over the and public transport companies, with very little any cofollowing decades by 160,000 in the 50s and 186,000 in the ordination of timetables and fares. - 60s and then stabilised at about 1.4 million during the 70s. — Initially, housing construction did not keep pace with the his co—operation agreement was later superseded by

T

population boom, but picked up gradually and climaxed in the 1971 agreement to establish a joint county the 60s and early 70s with a period of intense activity. council districtmunicipality, the Stockholm The decision to build an underground in Stockholm was County Council, with responsibility for mass made in 1941, and work began in 1945. This made possible transportation, health and medical care and overall regioto plan new residential areas which would have good access nal planning. This decision was twenty years in the to mass transportation. On the southern outskirts of town making, owing mainly to conflicts with regard to the beginning in the late 40s and continuing through the 50s, future of municipal self—determination. suburban centres grew up around the underground stations, The right to self-determination was maintained, which with service institutions at the core and housing at the meant that each municipality has a planning monopoly periphery. These centres were pure commuter towns the with regard to its building activities. — vast majority of the people who lived there worked in the city Traffic system co-ordination was vital, to keep centre. The western suburb of Vällingby came into being in travelling smooth, but problems arose owing to the the 50s, and represented a new way of thinking about urban conflict between collaboration with regard to mass planning, an area where people were supposed to be able to transportation and independence with regard to find all the city functions, work, housing, shops and services construction planning. A municipality could theoretically and therefore not have to travel as much. Parts of the toss up a lot of little houses in any old meadow and Vällingby concept were later applied to other new areas on leave responsibility for mass transportation in the area to the outskirts of Stockholm. the joint County Council, and in practice this has happened in places. Since the rnid—l970s when apartment house City of Stockholm went on expanding within the construction was complete in nearly all suburban areas,

The

metropolitan area, in co-ordination with the extension priority has been given to one—family houses. of the underground network. The underground was Consequently, although many of the recently—built owned and operated by the City. Slowly but surely all the residential neighbourhoods are accessible by public Stockholm land was utilised, and more and more people transportation, too irregular to encourage the people worked in Stockholm but lived in the outlying municipalities. who live there to leave their cars at home. In 1965 30 per cent of the population of the greater Stock- Further expansion of the underground has system holm area lived in the city centre and 40 per cent on the been proposed, but has met with resistance from couple a

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

In the 19505, when the Stockholm suburb of Vällingby was built, the infrastructure was used to determine other aspects of the town planning. ’‘j.iv.mt,,,3.¥ w

l°l1otoz STHLMS TADSMUSEUM

of the suburban municipalities which claim that infrequent bus lines, and the decentralisation of workplaces troublemakers come along with the underground. has not been followed up with corresponding public In recent decades, metropolitan Stockholm has transportation services.This has contributed to increased car promoted an explicit policy of decentralising workplaces. travel. There also a trend towards fewer and fewer people This has led to a demand for better cross-town public living within walking distance of an undergroundorcommuter transportation. The underground and commuter train train station, as the population density decreasing. Today, systems are all routed in and out of Stockholm, and their roughly half of the households in Stockholm are single purpose to transport people rapidly to and from the person households, and on an average there are fewer people City. The cross-town routes are serviced by slow, per apartment than there have been in the past. b

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

The infrastructure determined urban development

The expansion of satisfactory public transport services takes decades, and for that reason systems must be developed making possible for contemporary technology to go hand in hand with future technologies. The large photo shows a transfer point for switching from an old tram to a modern underground train. In the future both these systems must be able to co-operate with the light rail city trains being considered for several cities

small photo.

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

Industrialised society then tried to solve its environmental problems by ENVIRONMENTAL WORK dividing city by function, into zones. —A PUBLIC DUTY areas up During the 1960s and 70s town planners were preoccupied with the quantitative problems resultant from rapid urbanisation the construction —— of million apartments with all the necessary infrastructure, including one traffic systems and highways, large—scale supply systems for water, waste water and During this period, structures demanding increased energy. mobility continued to be built. The 1980s characterised by transition to urban renewal and were a environmental—improvement measures. This has led to increased awareness of the fact that city environments architecture, public spaces, parks and — open, green areas all deserve more attention. Quality has become more — important than quantity. Renewal to date has mainly been at local level, including renovation and renewal of individual buildings and residential neighbourhoods. The 90s expected to be marked by an increasing are demand for extensive urban renewal, not only of individual buildings 3 GREEN PAPER 1 more but of large portions of city structures, including the infrastructure. There signs in Sweden and internationally that interest in are many cities and improving urban environments on the march. This means that urban renewal be important feature of the 90s. One example of this may an interest the Green Paper the Urban Environment, presented by the on Commission of the European Communities, 1990. The seven points below summarise the purpose of this Green Paper

- To promote versatile land use in cities so that urban environments can be characterised by interplay different people and activities. ONTHE among many T0 maintain and strengthen the identities of cities by reinstating the vital URBAN connections between places and their histories. ENVIRONMENT -. .—— T0 channel urban development and growth to parts of cities whose ° original have become outdated, instead of using virgin land on city uses perimeters. To reduce the need to travel by private car in urban environments. ° To maintain the quality of outdoor environments and green areas. 0 T0 use regulations for energy economising and cautious use of natural ° resources as patterns for political management of issues relating to the urban environment. To ensure that the inhabitants of a city participate in decision—making with regard to changes in their city and management of their urban environmental problems.

Thus there are many indications that urban developments in the future will greater urban density. This may both pose new threats and new mean even potential for the sustainable structures of our cities. In urban renewal projects, parks and green areas in central and semi—central parts of the city often threatened, as that land highly desirable for uses that would are increase the density of the city. The green environments in cities have not been prioritised to date, despite the fact that people have often expressed

33 3 12-0576

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK clearly, in conflict situations, that they find decisive very green areas to -A PUBLIC DUTY their appreciation of neighbourhood. a

INFRASTRUCTURE RENEWAL

The demand for a sustainable environment means that must find we completely new ways of solving the problems associated with urban waste water and refuse, and new means of ensuring reliable, environmentallyadapted energy and water supplies. We will also have to find ways of managing the residual products which we will still have from traffic, industry, agriculture and forestry after measures at source have been implemented. Today, residual products such as waste from industry, storm water polluted by traffic, and nitrogen leached from agriculture are often mixed into the supply system for household waste. In the future, in addition to decisive measures at source, these flows must also be separated. The main challenge for the future to design and test new infrastructure systems based on the principle of ecological cycles. Because have we already made enormous investments in infrastructures, and built up our cities around them, we must find ways of gradually developing and adapting these urban infrastructures. Eco—villages in peripheral areas beyond the reach of the present infrastructure may be useful as experimentsites, but they can never represent more than marginal elements in the process of converting the infrastructure to serve as the basis for a society organised around ecological cycles. An environmental philosophy based on the principle of ecological cycles cannot gain ground without extensive renewal of our technical supply systems, and interplay between the technical infrastructure and the green infrastructure. For this to take place, new technical and organisational solutions will have to be designed and tested. We will have to acquire more know—how about the potential for interplay between technology, nature and mankind.

WE STILL NEED PLANNING

BUT NEW KINDS

— Although individual interest expected to go on growing, there are limits to the potential effect of individual initiatives. Changing patterns of building and of the infrastructure also takes time and requires intensive teamwork on the part of many actors. Of course there an inherent risk that the interest displayed by individuals in environmental alternatives for household use, etc. such as source separation may be undermined and replaced by passivity seems to individuals that the system, the e. municipality, or the waste management companies, are not working in environmentally sound ways. The taxation system must also give the necessary incentives to encourage continued household economising. For all these reasons, remains important that the central government and the municipalities go on co—operating actively to move society in the

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

direction of good environment. Planning of the physical environment ENVIRONMENTAL WORK a central and forms of planning vital. -—A PUBLIC DUTY - new are Paradoxically, increased European integration and regionalisation will be the primary cause of increased planning demands. Physical planning and land utilisation planning are deeply rooted in Sweden, and building and land use are tightly regulated. This planning has been effective in times of major expansion, and has attracted intematio— nal attention, for example, during the time of rapid urbanisation in the 1960s and 70s, owing to its success in keeping increased building and expansion of the infrastructure in step. The success of Swedish physical planning was attributable to three factors

° expressed its aims in a clear vision; - enabled co-ordinated urban expansion in a way that went hand in hand with the existing legislation; - the physical planners had good basic understanding of the technical supply systems and were therefore capable of communicating well with the technologists.

ln other words, the purpose and the means and language for achieving were so well co-ordinated and defined that was possible to institute comprehensive, collaborative planning. In retrospect also easy to see that this planning was blind to the environmental and social problems inherent in it. Today, however, as we explore new forms of planning, the purpose and the means and language for achieving that purpose have very little in common. The basic assumption of physical planning, that there must be new land for every new facility, no longer holds true. Adaptation of existing structures and facilities becoming the new trend. With regard to the interplay of natural resources and environmental issues in physical planning, the general approach has been from the perspective of building and exploitation. At this time classical nature conservationists also began to work with the interplay of planning and environmental issues, but using a different theoretical and methodological approach than the legal and technical regulatory structure. They used biology and natural geography instead, with a View to indicating areas worthy of conservation and then safeguarding them. In the 1990s we face the challenge of integrating these two planning traditions and their radically different points of departure. This endeavour to develop planning into a strategic instrument for improving the environment requires a large measure of increased expertise in conjunction with creative thinking.

URBAN SUPPLY

SYSTEMS REQUIRE

VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

urban ecological cycles

full

are to come course, there will have to be active integration technical with

‘the infrastructure

I the infrastructure. green

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

any of the environmental issues in relation to sustainable

M

cities are associated with the infrastructure. Supplying a city with water, food, energy and transportation gives rise to many environmental problems, including waste, air and water pollution, noise. In order to improve the environment, we must adapt urban supply systems to the environment. Mainly, supplies flow into cities, where they are then consumed. Waste products from cities are not returned to the places from which the original resources came. Instead, by—products are stored in the soil or spread to the air and water. Energy and staple goods are transported over long distances today supplies to a city may come from all over the world. These are —

Tusenskönan block of in Västerås with

- a apartments

ource separation the key to increased waste circulation All biological composted in thermally—insulated waste

S

in sustainable cities. Individuals must shoulder greater composters. There composting alongside a room every responsibility for their own waste management. Source hall the block. After of operation, entrance to two years separation also gives less contaminated waste than central has been established that the local sanitation department sorting. only collects 40 much from Tusenskönan per cent as waste Composting biological household waste has proven to be from other comparable blocks, that the inhabitants of as something of a key to good source separation. In Swedish Tusenskönan in twice much and nearly four turn as paper apartment buildings with composting, separation of other times much glass for recycling other people in Väsas as waste fractions has also improved, and total waste quantities terås. have decreased. One of the best examples of this the Source separation begins in the kitchen, and the kitchens condominium block in Västerås known as Tusenskönan. in Tusenskönan designed make for several were to room was built in 1990 in central Västerås, and has 69 apartments. waste containers. In addition to the there compost rooms, are also recycling rooms where the inhabitants put all their recyclable waste. you need a bit of paint, you can have a look at the shelf for hazardous waste, and you like the armchair your neighbour has decided to scrap, you are free to take it.

owever, Tusenskönan more than source separa

H

tion and thermal compost. In the Courtyard there a compost corner where composted material ages before being used in the blocks garden allotments. There also a covered workbench for re—potting plants and other small projects. The storm water from the roofs and courtyard conducted to a little stream which runs into a shallow pond at one end of the property. In dry periods, water pumped through the stream to improve the environment. In rainy periods, overflow water from the pond conducted to the municipal storm water pipeline. All this provides a lovely addition to the environment, and has some purifying effect on the water.

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

large-scale technical systems no individual can be expected to fully URBAN SUPPLY comprehend. supply flows are integrated into the ecological cycle, and SYSTEMS REQUIRE waste products returned, wherever possible, to the parts ofthe system from VISIBLE ECOCYCLES which they came, environmental problems can be reduced. energy and staple goods are produced more locally, technical systems are made more comprehensible, and individuals can affect them, these smallerscale local ecological cycles may be the ideal model for sustainable cities. This chapter presents examples of municipal environment work on five aspects of the urban, technical infrastructure green infrastructures, water and waste water supply systems, waste management, the energy supply, and traffic.

Illustration PETRA SANDHOLM,

full

ecological cycles HSBIS RIKSFORBUND

Waste to be treated by the municipality. Compost used und stored outside and on the allotments. 0 As potential waste in the 0 Biological waste composting shops, where the questions WASTE IN SIX PLACES in the compost room. What will the goods I People living in the block have 0 Recycling in the recycling buy look like when they are six waste sites, room glass, paper, waste products Will they Source separation in the batteries, textiles, hazardous be difficult to recycle 0 kitchen. waste and sheet metal. compost.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

GREEN INFRASTRIIUCTURES

— VITAL INTERLINKING

To reduce the risk of floodin in Many parts of Swedish cities are relatively sparsely structured and have a times of heavy rain, Stockho m great deal of unbuilt-up Inner city residential only make space. areas up a Water constructing a storm fraction of Swedens housing, and such dotted with parks even areas are sewer overflow basin known as and other open space. Swedish cities are often surrounded by woodlands the ORMEN project, with a with plenty of recreational areas. In other words, Swedish cities have a very high capacity. This will make possible to store storm good physical point of departure for great ecological variation, a diversity sewer overflow water until the of flora and fauna, dynamic exchange with the surrounding and the area, pipeline and treatment plants development of natural cycles. can handle it. The advantageous points of departure in terms of urban and physical Source Stockholm Water. planning described above should make very possible to create a green infrastructure, taking advantage of the unbuilt-up areas to establish natural cycles in and among cities and between urban areas and their rural environments. Today, the necessary links for a sustainable, green infrastructure have not been established, and their absence means that cities and the surrounding areas are not intertwined, and the natural cycles are thus absent. Developing a sustainable infrastructure a task mainly in the hands of our urban planners, who have traditionally disputed whether the right solution to have occasional green areas stretching from the Countryside straight into the cities, or to have green belts at intervals encircling cities. Green stretches provide the best ecological contact between cities and the Countryside, but perhaps the best overall solution to have both stretches and belts, weaving a sustainable network of infrastructure. No matter which urban planning tactic used, interconnection of the green areas vital. Clearly the green infrastructure and traffic will conflict, as green areas and roads must intersect. Often, the green infrastructure

ECOCYCLES sou 199243

URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

A good urban environment requires excitement and variation. The open spaces must be well thought out, and the location of works of art and the flora and fauna can serve as cornerstones for detailed planning. Paradise by Niki Sant-Phalle and Jean Tinguely at HÅKANSSON Skeppsholmen in Stockholm. Photo;JAN

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN SUPPLY the loser. But just as when link in the waste water system missing the one SYSTEMS REQUIRE entire system breaks down, there only has to be small disruption in the one VISIBLE ECOCYCLES corridor for the infrastructure to fail the animals, green green to serve plants, water and people meant to transport. The green infrastructure of our cities deserves more attention in our preschool and school systems. Children and staff could be much more actively engaged with their local environments, and have a creative impact on them. The local nature provides a wealth of free educational material for children, and also gives them a basic understanding of natural cycles. Well-planned vegetation and wooded park areas can improve the local air quality, and the micro-climate. We could do much to improve more our urban climates by better utilising vegetation to reduce the impact of the wind, balance temperature variation and hydrate the air. Planting wind barriers on the outskirts of cities ineffective unless followed with up the necessary levels of urban wind protection. Open water areas in urban environments are considered undesirable, and efforts have been made to drain them. We have filled the natural urban watercourses and wetlands with earth, and conducted natural running water out of our cities, at great expense. Instead, water should be regarded as an asset, a positive element in urban environments. Water a solution multiplier, with beneficial many effects. Vegetation and the soil can purify water, binding its pollutants and utilising its nutrients. We could conduct urban storm water for in use watering grass, bushes and trees instead of removing through our sewer systems. We could allow our storm water to be filtered by the earth, retaining in the soil, in ditches, in ponds and wetlands instead of eliminating as quickly as possible. we did this, the people, animals, and vegetation in our cites would live in a richer environment.

The green infrastructure of city a an important, visible and pedagogical aspect of environmental education. This picture from Stockholms ecopark, where children and adults may 250 species of see birds, unique deciduous forests, and many other plants and animals. Photo NADJA EKMAN

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

A of pre-schoolers make A group i their first hesitant contact with the cows at Aspö.

Photo LENA CHRISTERSSON-MAGNUSSON

The Aspö farm

city

ity children of today know very little about where the lines of traditional agriculture, and the services of a their food comes from, about the natural cycle farmer are hired. The farming generates a small profit, which between city and surroundings.The chain ofevents makes the Operating budget modest. The farm also has a from planting a seed to putting dinner on the table has recreational teacher onits staff, who leadsthe study tours and become too large—scale to be comprehensible, with other activities. enormous farms, and a centralised food processing industry including purchasing and transport systems and the retail trade. The connections have become blurred — between a cow and a carton of milk, a loaf of bread and a field of grain, ajar of applesauce and an orchard. In the western Swedish town ofSkövde, the municiphousing company has set up a city farm. Municipalities and associations could also start city farms to teach children where food comes from. A city farm in the city or on its outskirts, and has cows, pigs, chickens, and small fields of grain and other crops. The children get to help look after the animals, but they are not to be cuddled and treated as pets. The animals live proper animal lives and are sent to the slaughterhouse. The Aspö city farm adjacent to three residential areas in which the Skövde municipal housing company has a total of 2,300 apartments. Day nursery and school classes are frequent visitors at the farm, and anyone who likes may go along on their free time andjoin in the work to be done. Tenants of Skovde’s municipal housing company may rent low—cost allotment garden plots and join the farm pony club, where children may ride once a week for a nominal membership fee. The farm run on

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

Halmstad and nitrogen purification

structures

green

-

he town of Halmstad on the Laholm Gulf, a sometimes children first-hand experience of the natural environment.

T

highly polluted stretch of the Swedish west coast. The incineration plant in Halmstad serious waste a Nitrogen leaching from the farmlands in the area has polluter of when off the hard surfaces storm water, runs been detrimental to the sea. The Swedish government where the RDF fuel waste pellets stored. A wetland

running a massive project via the County Administrative has been developed area now near the plant, where storm Board and the municipalities, to do something about the will be purified before being conducted the water to nitrogen problem. receiving A similar purifying waters. storm water wet- Most of this pollution airborne, or comes from land has been developed in Halmstad in the eastem fertilisation of farm land, vicinity of industrial The from that an estate. water area and a small part from that through the wetland previously right now passes ran waste treatment plants. into river. a The Riksdag adopted a A little lake, about 2.5 hectares in has been made area, decision to improve ni- the Halmstad municipal plant. near waste water treatment trogen purification, pri- All the water from the plant will be stored for now marily at waste water polishing in the lake for 24 hours before running into

treatment plants, which the Laholm Gulf. A root has been developed zone area at more expensive that to another small municipal waste water treatment plant to

improve nitrogen puri- fill the function. The treated through same water passes fication in farming. A the for further purification before running into area out combination of measures the surrounding rural areas. isthe mostcost-beneficial

strategy. n addition to their foresighted policies taking advantage

l

One of the practical of the infrastructure, Halmstad has taken green many aspects of this work other initiatives well, such tree—planting plan as as a that the Halmstad parks which has political because won great support - vårt viktigaste livsmedel... administration has made aesthetically and environmentally justified and will .men också en viktig livsmiljö park land available for improve the air quality.

HALMSTAD ‘W management and puri- The parks administration has also worked hard to venom och Maximum fication of storm water. involve the schools in environmental work. They have

In return, Halmstad will written Catalogue of ideas for practical environmental a have lovely aqueous environments where plants and animals work giving schoolchildren twelve different activities

can thrive, and which the public can enjoy. The municipality to choose including planting deciduous trees in among, running various projects in which storm water held in coniferous putting birdhouses, protecting sand areas, up ponds and wetland before being conducted into the receiving dunes with pine branches, and planting and flower grass waters. beds. The parks administration provides expert advice, A pond in the Vallås residential area has been used as a but leaves the practical organisation the schools. to basin for short-term storage of storm water since the 19705. Many Swedish cities have retained natural such areas, Today the pond completely integrated into the environment, parks and recreational in the midst of built—up as areas, and the people living there see as a natural part of their neighbourhoods. There also often wooded are areas on neighbourhood. Swans and other birds nest there and there the outskirts of conurbations. These valuable are areas, are plenty of frogs. T0 improve the nitrogen treatment and and be made their ecological diversity can even more so increase the ecological variation, a wetland area has been increased. Although Halmstad surrounded by farm

developed downstream of the pond. The people in the land, the city has its parks and surrounding forests. The

neighbourhood, including schoolchildren, helped the park parks administration works consciously diversify very to staff to make the wetland, and becoming an area with the biology of these and spends deal their a areas, a great on wealth of flora and fauna. The schools use the area to give maintenance. Although only about one—twentieth costs

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

The treatment plant in Halmstad at Västra Stranden 60,000 people, hospitals, and many industries. A serves total of 12.5 million cubic meters of waste water conducted to the plant annually. At the lant the waste water treated in several steps mec anically, — biologically and chemically. A fu her step for nitrogen purification being added. now

lll'I:IlIw1Iil— puff

Photo JONASGERDLE

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

Photo TORSTENROSENOVIST

Halmstad structures and - green

nitrogen purification

of what costs to maintain a park to keep these areas order, does cost substantially more than caring for traditional forests. They concentrate on increasing the numbers of biotopes in the forest areas and on increasing the ecological variation of open landscapes. When new park land being developed, newly-harvested hay from owerin g meadows in the local nature preserves brought in and used to cover the new areas where flowering meadows will be, as a means of naturally disseminating the local flora.

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

URBAN SUPPLY

WATER AND SEWAGE

SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

- TWO WET

CHALLENGES

Sweden has a wealth of clean water. Contrary to many other nations, Swedish urban and rural areas have access to good drinking water. The only exception are the south—eastem parts of Sweden and the islands of Öland and Gotland, where annual precipitation levels low. are very Pollution of ground water an increasing problem, and difficult to overview. Our air a sensitive system, and once polluted difficult to remedy. Both acidification and nitrogen pollution affect the ground water, and today we cannot know what the future consequences will be. The main challenges for urban management of water and waste water are local management of more storm water, reduction of the heavy metal levels in waste water, and reduction of nitrogen leaching to the seas. Many municipalities have already initiated ambitious efforts to accomplish these things. Urban storm water conducted through a pipeline which cost billions of kronor to construct. keeps city dwellers’ lawns from being flooded after storms, and their feet from being soaked when they run from a parking lot into a building during a storm. The system will soon be ripe for renewal, which will mean investment of billions. When acid rain falls, already rich in nitrogen, and further polluted when runs off roofs, through parking lots, and along roads before makes its way into the sewer system. The special storm water run-

Awareness of the cycles of water impgrtant. Here schoolchildren from Orebro are doing fieldworks by of the Ecologymeans bus the rolling school of - Photo LEIFLARSSON 47

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN SUPPLY off pipelines conducts this untreated waste into stream, rivers and lakes, SYSTEMS REQUIRE and pollutes them. When storm water conducted via the ordinary waste VISIBLE ECOCYCLES water pipeline adds an additional burden to the capacity of the waste treatment plants. When rains heavily, untreated waste water also runs out into lakes, rivers and streams, as the capacity of the sewer system insufficient. Two measures must be implemented to reduce the problem of storm water management. Firstly, as much storm water as possible must be dealt with locally, through soil infiltration. Secondly, the time before storm water reaches the waste treatment plants must be prolonged as far as COSTS FOR REDUCTION OF possible. NITROGEN EMISSIONS Because of the high heavy metal levels in waste water and, consequently,

SEK kg in waste sludge, farmers hesitate to utilise the sludge today. Measures

many nitrogen the only of reducing heavy metal levels, To date, most at source are way Recovery of wetlands 4-25 attention has been focused on discharges from major industries which, of course, accounted for most of the problem. A great deal has been done in Waste water treatment plants 35-60 this area. Now time to look at the contribution from small industries and households, and massive information campaigns will be required to Manure handling 30-70 encourage them to reduce their discharges. Efforts will also be made to Planting catch crops ‘I0-50 reach the producers of Cleansing agents and other domestic chemicals. Nitrogen purification Most nitrogen leached into the sea comes from agriculture, but some from flue gases 45-180 comes from municipal waste water treatment plants. The Riksdag has Vehicle exhaust stipulated that all coastal waste water treatment plants must reduce the total purification 20-50 nitrogen content of their effluents by 50 per cent and, in sensitive areas, by

MarkÄlekulla

purification

- at source

The parish village of Älekulla in the municipality of Mark has roughly thirty households, and their waste water treated at a primitive purification plant, a biological dam. The village could not expand without building a new purification plant, but the municipality found an alternative solution; at—source purification, and consequent reduction of the quantities of nutrients needing to be purified. In the spring of 1989, the inhabitants were informed of the intentions of the local government, and provided free of charge with very low phosphate cleansers and detergents. The village shop also sold suitable products, and the phosphate levels in the domestic waste water decreased by more than 50 The people of Älekulla became active in the per cent. very project of reducing the damage to their watercourses, and by replacing high-phosphate detergents with equivalent lowphosphate products, they halved phosphate discharges from Älekulla.

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

r i A ‘ What would Stockholm be ~ ~‘

g

. a , V‘. -. without its water ,. Photo JAN COLLSIOOPRESSENS BILD 49 4 12~0576

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

Stockholms

unique environment

water -— a

the capital of Sweden has a unique Stockholm Water Ltd., municipally-owned a com-

Stockholm

— — environment by comparison with most other large which both supplies the people of Stockholm with pany cities. For example, people living in Stockholm can drinking water and their The treats waste water. company swim and fish for salmon in the water of Lake Mälaren, right has two water treatment plants and three sewage treatment in the middle of town. But the water of Stockholm at plants. Since 1989 Stockholm Water has made every constant threat, and safeguarding of vital importance. In effort to reduce discharges of environmentally hazardous the Plan for the Stockholm Environment, adopted by the city substances into the system. The plants sewage treat waste council in 1989, the aspect about water which stressed water from roughly million inhabitants, many sources one the need to increase the amount of protection given to innumerable small and medium—sized industries, huge a drinking water and the lakes which supply it. The plan service sector, and the citys storm water. The waste water proposes a pilot project for local management of storm subjected to high—degree purification with special a water, and the drawing up of a programme for ongoing focus suspended materials, oxygen—depleting on renovation of the waste water network, as ways of gradually substances, phosphorous and nitrogen. After treatment, reducing the load on the pipeline and the municipal water the water conducted out into the Stockholm archipelago purification plants. and the Baltic Sea.

in the rnid-1960s, and through to the end

Beginning

of the 1980s, Stockholm Water has worked primarily Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON with trying to obtain less polluted waste water from industries, to minimise the input of hazardous pollutants into the sewer system. They have concentrated on heavy

metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury, and on implementing measures at source.

The reasons for this are

- No damage must be done to the sewer system; must

be kept in satisfactory working order. - Treated waste water must be made harmless to the

receiving waters. 0 Purified sewage sludge can be made useful as a soil

improvement material for agriculture. This makes necessary to place high demands on the heavy level

content of the sludge as well as its contents of certain other environmentally hazardous organic substances. - Purification processes at sewage treatment plants

should always function at optimum levels. The nitrom gen purification process particularly sensitive to Although there has been a ban on the sale of disturbances. mercury thermometers for the last year in The work environment in the ° sewer system must not Sweden, they still dominate household use. jeopardise the health of the personnel. therefore important to spread information about how to dis ose of them. Durin the spring of For example, the graphics industry and photo processing ‘I992, Stoc holm Water carrie out a campaign laboratories are no longer allowed to discharge used encouraging households to turn their mercury developer or fixing solution into the sewer system, but thermometers in at their local chemists. Every household also received personal letter with must separate and treat it. This has forced the larger a information and the offer of bonus industries to acquire their own treatment facilities, a upon return of thermometer. primarily evaporation plants. There are also three waste a

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

management companies in the region which collect waste from the graphics industry and treat using stateof-the—art technology. Most of the mercury discharged into the waste water comes from dental practices. Dentists have been required to have amalgam separators in their practices since the mid-1980s, with a view to reducing these discharges. One of the main problems associated with discharges from the service sector the use of more or less hazardous detergents and cleansers. Another mercury from dental practices. Work to counteract these problems has been focused on information and direct contacts with major consumers. A folder entitled Wash Wisely was produced, describing suitable cleaning agents for various purposes.

following example provides an illustration of

The

how Wash Wisely worked in practice. Before the folder was circulated, one supplier of detergent to Stockholm day nurseries had cornered about 70 per cent of the market. These products were considered among the least suitable ones, and were therefore not listed in the folder. Stockholm Water contacted this distributor a Readily accessible environmental stations all couple of months after Wash Wisely distributed. over the city located, for example, at gas was — He virtually unable sell his products, and wondered stations, are a prerequisite for consumers really was to brining in their environmentally-hazardous what to do about it. This provoked discussions with a waste. manufacturer, who proved instantly willing to change the of the dish washing Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON contents soap. Domestic waste water contains many substances with varying degrees of toxicity and in different amounts. only way of reducing these quantities to implement Most emissions of environmentally hazardous chemicals measures, mainly in relation to automotive traffic. come from dish washing and laundry soaps and cleaning Stockholm Water has not yet made much progress in this agents, but other problem areas include used photo but one-year study of the impact of vehicle traffic on area, a chemicals, paint residues, solvents, insecticides, and storm water has been initiated. Measurements will be made mercury from broken thermometers. For this reason, the of the contribution from vehicle traffic of dioxins, PAH city has opened a number of environment centres, and compounds, PCB compounds, various metals, etc. Possible run various campaigns aimed at households. measures may include a ban on the use of studded tires in Storm water a major source of pollution in Stock- central Stockholm, reduced uses of leaded petrol, and separate holm. carries large quantities of hazardous substances conduction of storm water from the most highly—trafficked into the waste water network. Automobile traffic streets. contributes to pollution both in terms of exhaust, wear Stockholm Water has also taken the initiative in regional and tear on asphalt roads, and studded tires. Nearly half collaboration amongst the municipalities around Stockof the Stockholm waste water network of the holm. A working group studying the potential for measures combination type, meaning that storm water collected at source and has already proposed a review of the in the same pipeline as other waste water and conducted construction material sector, with new environmental to a treatment plant for purification. The current plan requirements. Materials which may give rise to regulating the expansion of the Stockholm waste water environmental problems are to be avoided, and when there network indicates that most of the combination network choice, the most environmentally sound material a will be retained, and supplemented with overflow basins. always to be used. has been proposed that the granting of This means that large quantities of pollutants will continue building permits or loans for new buildings or building to flow through the treatment plants via storm water. The renovation be used as an instrument in this respect.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN S UPPLY 70 per cent. This quite an expensive undertaking. In some municipalities SYSTEMS REQ UIRE treatment plans only account for a few per cent of nitrogen leaching to the VISIBLE EC 0C YCLES sea, and in these municipalities might be more cost-beneficial to invest corresponding amounts in the natural water systems instead. However, in sensitive areas the need to reduce nitrogen leaching so great that necessary to invest both in the treatment plants and in the natural systems. Nitrogen purification systems for municipal waste water treatment plants may be either conventional or biological. Conventional technology expensive, and means concrete-and-pipe solutions. Biological technology, which uses rooting zone plants, biological filtration, etc., extremely space-consuming and also means installing some pipe and pump systems, which often makes just as expensive as conventional technology. Rooting zone treatment of Measures which can be taken in the natural water systems are mainly overflow water a state-of-the- passive which require technical installations monitoring of ones, no or art biological technology. operation and maintenance. Reinstating wetland areas, establishment of Research indicates that the coastal beach zones, changing the drainage system of ditches and streams, technique works in the winter, although the purification establishing non—cultivation zones with natural vegetation along too, effects are slightly reduced. watercourses, are examples of measures for the natural water system.

3V, J .92.- 7 .o - , Cola - . ...Z -I-V,f;, v I ø ‘ .’g. - - -~ , .. h

PERSSO

Photo BENGT Source DAGGMASKENSDILEMMA

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES .1-.-.,. URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

In Sweden, a massive expansion of modern waste water treatment Iants took place, primarily uring the 19605. This resulted directly in the lakes and watercourses and the sea becoming less polluted. The water could once again be used for swimming, and fish species which had been eradicated returned. But we were overly optimistic about the purification capacity of the technology and for this reason contemporary environmental work being focused urification at source. on Catching lutants before they po reach the water should be one of our main strategies.

Photo BOSSE JoHANsso

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN SUPPLY

WASTE

SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

- INCENTIVES

TO CHANGE

Up until the 1980s, quantities of domestic waste increased steadily. The amount of household waste collected annually by municipal sanitation authorities increased from less than 15-20 kg in 1950 to per person over 300 kg per person in 1980. Most waste management in Sweden has taken the form of landfill deposits and incineration. Today, 55 cent of all household waste per incinerated in the 24 Swedish incineration plants. Swedens 400 landfills mainly receive industrial waste, ash and slag from incineration processes, sludge from waste water treatment plants, and most of the remaining household waste. Waste management today does not enable individuals to see the consequences of their behaviour, or the results of changing it. We need a climate with incentives to change. Local management of much waste as as possible and demanding comprehensive separation will make source possible for people to see the effects of their actions. Waste landfill deposit a poor way of managing resources with a negative environmental impact, spreads pollutants to the soil, water as and atmosphere. must gradually be replaced. Today landfill some deposit inevitable, but should be minimised.

Sludge from sewage treatment plants could be a resource for farmers, not fot its was decontamination. Photo BENGTPERSSON

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

Borlänge and waste

energy

-

the municipality of Borlänge, in the province of At the separation plant, metals and compostable waste are Dalacarlia, a municipally-owned limited company removed, and the latter then centrally composted and the Borlänge Energy, Ltd. has been given responsibility product has been sold as top soil for gardening. The heavy for both supplying the municipality with electricity and metal content has posed a problem, but has now been reduce district heat, and managing its waste. This has had many from an initial 2,000 ppm to 150-200 ppm today. In an positive synergetic effects, including intensive utilisation ongoing project for more effective source separation at of waste for municipal energy production. 2,000 households, values as low as 25-40 ppm in finished The Borlänge district heating network gets 65 per cent of compost have been achieved. This indicates that substantially its energy from three heat pumps connected to the waste lower pollution levels can be attained through source sepawater system of the local paper mill, Kvamsveden. ration than central sorting. Roughly two—thirds of the households in Borlänge are Borlänge has also connected to this network, as well as some other premises distributed large amounts and places of work. A large part of the remaining energy of information to the gedemand generated through combustion of household neral public. All school waste. ln a longer-tenn perspective, however, combustion classes from fourth grade of household waste not a sustainable solution, but must through upper secondary be seen more as a temporary measure. RDF fuel also school were visited by a produced from household waste at a separation and representative of the composting plant built in 1980. This fuel stored during energy authorities, and the summer months and used during the winter. A huge informed about waste, roof will now be built over the RDF depot to keep the fuel waste management, shopdry during storage, so as to increase its energy exchange ping environmentallyvalue and reduce pollution. wisely, and environmental impact. The energy authorities have one person working full time with school information and integration of waste and environmental issues in education. The separation and composting plant had an open house to show what happens with waste products after an individual throws them away. The local cable TV network broadcast information on waste tor two hours a week for six months. Flyers about battery disposal were distributed to household, environ-mental groups, authorities and political organisations. At the Borlänge district heating plant, some Representatives of the authorities visit industries and energy household waste used as fuel, but this not construction sites with view to improving separation and a a sustainable solution, and so Borlänge has recycling techniques. opened central composting plant. This a Both domestic and industrial materials recycling have means that inhabitants can purchase not only increased in recent years, thanks to increased information electricity but also topsoil from their municipal and better equipment for source separation. Recycling energy authority. increased by 37 per cent between 1986 and 1991.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN S UPPLY We must efforts to recycle glass and plastic, although such pursue paper. SYSTEMS REQUIRE recycling economically rewarding. Source separation and not yet very VISIBLE EC 0C YCLES recycling must continue while long—terrn sustainable solutions to the waste management problem are being developed. Central sorting of waste for compost plants does not result in good enough quality compost. Local composting of household and garden waste reduces many waste management problems, but require attitude changes as well as changes in municipal regulations they to be gain broad are acceptance. Transport of waste extensive today and consumes amounts enormous of energy, costly and has negative environmental Waste consequences. space—consuming, and has to be collected frequently for this reason as well as for sanitary reasons. Landfills and, even moreso incineration plants, are centralised. Waste for incineration sometimes has to be transported more than 150 km from where collected. Recycling stations are few and far between, so recycled paper, glass and plastic end up being transported all over Sweden. The sludge from sewage treatment plants must be decontaminated so can be used as agricultural fertiliser. Today, pollution levels in the sludge from some plants are so high that the farmers‘ organisations recommend that their members not accept it. Increased separation and source management of hazardous domestic waste, increased awareness of the dangers associated with using various chemicals, cleansing agents, etc., can improve the quality of sludge and make a product farmers will want to purchase. Implementation of measures at industries which generate large amounts of pollutants, etc. will also be helpful in this respect.

Transport of waste extensive, costly and energy consuming. Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

g wmz§wg{çssmgeg., .

Eslöv

-

co—operation

between

municipality and industry for bio-energy

plants are very investment—intense. To be for 85 cent. Both fractions contain great deal of water. per

Biogas

a profitable, there must be enormous depots or sedi The extracted bio- conducted to heating centre 1.5 gas a mentation chambers with large amounts of mate- km from the waste water treatment plant, service 450 onerial for sedimentation. In many situations, difficult to family houses. The profit generated from the sale of the gas make biogas extraction from household waste in sedi- the waste treatment costs. The sedimentation residue covers mentation chambers a paying venture. The potential for spread the fields. on economic feasibility increases in co—operation with ma- Previously the waste water treatment plant produced jor industrial or agricultural producers of biological 20,000 of sludge annually. The sedimentation tonnes waste, or farmers cultivating bio—energy crops for sedi- chamber has reduced this quantity to 6,000 tonnes annually. mentation. The municipality of Eslöv has had a sedimen- The sedimentation sludge has low levels of heavy very tation chamber for waste water constructed. They use metals and other pollutants, and therefore be used can as a in collaboration with a food processing industry, Felix, plant nutrient and soil improvement agent in agriculture. which produce very large amounts of vegetable waste The municipality supplementing the plant with now a and other food waste. Municipal waste water accounts domestic A pilot project involving 112 waste reactor. for 15 per cent of the sedimentation material, and Felix households has been successfully initiated.

i

ENERGY

35§2i2§%;%5,RE

-REFOCUSING ON SOLAR,

WIND AND BIOFUELS

The sun one of the sources of life the most important of them all. The — rays of the sun wake vegetation to life, trigger production. The oxygen sun a basic prerequisite for life on earth. Plants store solar which energy, then released to the benefit of mankind. When the use of energy dominated by fossil fuels, the balance of nature disturbed. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, the temperature rises, the climate changes. This what makes ourcontemporary use of fossil fuels a threat to the future of humanity. To establish sustainable development, we must convert our use of energy to renewable and environmentally adapted sources. We must also make more efficient use of energy and develop energy supply systems that minimise our vulnerability. A system for renewable sources of energy will, by necessity, include technologies using many kinds of energy. This will have to be a decentralised system, with components on different scales, adapted to meet local and regional need. The energy flowing into the system will locally and vary over time. All this means that the supply technologies used in a renewable energy system and the end user technologies applied to satisfy energy service demands will have to be well—integrated. Such technologies are already available today. The Swedish climate a cold one, meaning that we need a great deal of excess energy to heat our homes and workplaces. We demand high a level of comfort no matter how cold outside most of want the indoor us temperature to be at least +20°C indoors. Sweden also has large a proportion of built space per inhabitant 93 m2, including housing, offices and other facilities, but excluding industrial space. Despite Sweden’s climate, plenty

cold

solar radiation during

solar Energy A Report of the there lS

united Nations Solar Energ the summer months just as much as in North Africa, but the heat needs for Environment be stored for the winter half of the

Group

an to year. Technology has been developed DeV° °P‘° UNSEGED this need. to meet N°v°mb° 1991 A great deal of work has been done to improve the insulation of buildings, and new buildings constructed according to the present norms and standards, are very energy-efficient. During the 1980s, a great deal of work has been done in the construction sector to develop methods and technologies for energy efficient buildings. This work was successful, and was concluded that residential buildings constructed in the 1990s would not need to purchase more than 100 to 120 kWh of energy per square meter and year. However, these technological solutions contained a fundamental error The reduction in total energy consumption took place at the expense of increased consumption of electricity, most of which was used to run ventilation systems.

SOL 199243 ECOCYCLES

URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

Despite its cold climate, Sweden has developed solar collector technology for both large and small scale ap lications. The

photo below shows field of

a solar collectors in Nykvarn in Södertälje. The picture to the left shows an energy-efficient building in Stockholm. an interesting illustration of the potential for building new, energy-efficient buildings right in the middle of densely constructed inner city areas.

Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

ECOCYCLES SOU199243

URBAN SUPPLY A factor that has exacerbated towards lower consumption a move energy SYSTEMS REQUIRE in buildings, the increasing numbers of health problems attributable new VISIBLE ECOCYCLES indoor climates. A few Government Commission to poor years ago, a reported that allergies are on the increase in Sweden, and that this related to the fact of our poor indoor environments. The Commission concluded that the efforts to conserve energy in buildings had been overly ambitious, and that the problems which had arisen would have to be solved by expanding ventilation systems, which would require using electricity. more However, there are many indications that this argument erroneous. The poor indoor climate in many buildings can mainly be attributed to a combination of unsatisfactory building materials and careless construction. Photo BENGTPERSSON Sweden has long had excellent availability of electricity, and very low electricity prices by international standards. Half of the electricity supply generated from hydropower and the other from nuclear power. Sweden, with its twelve nuclear power plants, has the most nuclear power per inhabitant of any country in the world, and total annual electricity production of 70 TWh. However, nuclear power not a sustainable energy source. Therefore the Parliament, after a referendum, has decided that all nuclear power stations should be decomissioned latest by year 2010. The conversion of urban building towards effective more energy structures a slow process. Buildings are built to have very long lifetimes hundreds of years. For this reason important to take the opprtunity, — every time a building to be renovated or extended, to apply state of the art technology and the most energy—efficient solutions available The Stockholm City Real Estate Department calculates, for example, that in the year 2020 less than a quarter of the buildings in Stockholm will be new buildings i.e. built no later than 1992, just quarter will over a be newly renovated, while the remaining half will at best have been renovated at some point and have had their equipment and appliances boilers, refrigerators, etc. replaced. Swedish cities have reduced their dependence on imported fossil fuels, but their energy supplies are now more dependent on nuclear power. Promising results indicate that possible to reduce dependency on both fossil fuels and uranium, by more efficient energy use, and increased use of solar and wind power and biofuels. The technology available, but only used to a limited extent today owing to the fact that the price of electricity too low.

SOU 199243 ECOC CLES v URBAN SUPPLY SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

Swedens dependence on imports of oil has been

substan reduced thro

conservation and energy replacing oil with electricity from hydropower and nuclear power. But, because nuclear power not a sustainable solution, the Swedish energy system being refocused solar and bio-fuels. on

Photo TOMMY MÄNSSON

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

Energy consultancy an important aspect of policy in Falkenberg

energy

ore and more of the energy used in the town of people to work out, for example, how much encourage a

MFalkenberg

comes from the sun, the wind, and long, hot shower costs in and in energy money. wood chips. And the people of Falkenberg also You can also the advisory service to find outabout use have access to free advisory services about how they could insulating home, extra glazing for windows, your your or use less energy. sealing doors and windows better. your There are many visible signs of how Falkenberg has The municipality of Falkenberg showing the way to invested in renewable sources of energy. Along the main effective by setting good example. The energy use a road coming from the north one of Swedens largest fields municipal housing has reduced the company energy of solar collectors, and there a wind power plant in the consumption in a block of 150 flats by 62 cent per over a harbour. Close to the town centre you can see truckloads of period. Their attributable ten year success to a wood chips being delivered to the district heating plant. combination of implementing gradual technical Falkenberg a coastal town about 100 km south of improvements, better maintenance routines, and inforan Göteborg with 17,000 inhabitants in the town itself and mation campaign to the tenants. Experience has proven 37,000 in the greater Falkenberg area. that building has skilled, committed caretaker,it will a a be much easier to keep energy consumption down. Caretaker training has therefore become one of the many areas in which the advisory service works. The energy consultant in Falkenberg has found there to be a connection between municipal efforts and individuals‘ interest in energy issues. A few years ago the municipality installed solar cells at the public swirrming centre to heat the shower water, and many homeowners then wanted to install solar heat at home.

alkenberg has been consistent and quite successful

F

in promoting environmentally—profiled energy policies since the mid—70s. This has resultei, for instance, in a two—thirds reduction of oil consurrption excluding the transport sector.

gs.-;iH‘a‘z11i‘J’ ln 1978, the municipality itself used 3,000 m3 oloil to

A heat schools, retirement homes, etc. In 199] this - 2 å w r consumption was down to 700 m3, despite an increase in the total heated area. They have managed to do away with The energy advisory services office in the town centre 1000 cubic meters of oil, to replace another 900 m with not nearly as conspicuous as the solar Collector field or the wood chips and a further 400 m3 still with fossil gas. solar wind power plant. Anyone at all welcome in, to consult energy and heat pumps. with the town energy advisor. Most visitors come wanting The municipality has an important role to play in help in choosing the best heating alternative how much a commissioningtechnologies for using renewable erergy. heat pump or a natural gas boiler Can I fuel my boiler with For this reason, a few years ago the municipal eiergy wood authorities purchased a wind power plant developel by a The choice of technical solution important, but the local firm. Two more wind power plants have recently advisory service staff also stresses that changing energy been ordered from the same finn, and in the municiaality consumption habits and maintaining the equipment you have there are three more wind power plants spinning inder can be even more important ways of reducing energy other ownership. Falkenberg a windy town, and consumption. They speak at schools and elsewhere, and possible to build many more.

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

The energy consumption was reduced by 62 per cent over a ten- 198081 New weather sealing For year period in a block with 150 apartments in Falkenberg. windows, thermostat-regulated Measurements, analyses, and attention to details gave good cost- efficient apartment vents, more beneficid FGSUHSboiler maintenance, posters on energy savings. Purchased energy 198182 The kWh same measures m7apartment-area per year implemented all apartments. ’ 198283 Drying renovated, rooms i hot water temperature reduced from 65°C to 55 C. 198384 Checking and replacing thermostat vents, run-oil drains installed bathtubs and sinks, information to tenants. 198485 Adjustment regulatory vents for additional heat. 198586 Renovation work begun insulation attic, triple glazed — windows, water conservation outdoor air heat measures, pumps begin operation, boiler room renovated, computerised heat control equipment. 198687 Renovation completed, adjustment heating equipment.

80 81 81 82 82 83 8384 8485 8586 8687 8788 888 9 year PHWMARNN NAUCLER ,

The solar Collector field, with a solar cell arca covering solar radiation during the summer months in Falkenberg 5,500 m3, supplies heat to the district heating network during as Northern Africa, because the days long close are so the summer months. Solar heat satisfies 10 per cent of the to the north pole. annual demands of the district heating system, with the Aroundmidsummerswedendoesnotneedmuchheat, remainder of the excess heat supplied by the wood chip- except for hot tap water, but the good thing about solar fuelled boiler. heat that can be stored from summer until winter. Despite the cold Swedish climate, there just as much

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

URBAN SUPPLY

TRAFFIC

SYSTEMS REQUIRE VISIBLE ECOCYCLES

- TOWARDS NEW MODES

AND NEW FUELS

Twenty-five percent of all traffic in Sweden takes place on the less than 2 per cent of the Swedish road network in the three large metropolitan areas Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö. This concentration also means that these three areas have the best point of departure for an extensive public transport system, not least of the rail-bound type. Although the size of the rail—bound public transport network in Sweden relatively small, accounts for a relatively large proportion of Swedens public transport, particularly in the Stockholm region. The ratio of car ownership per capita also lower in the metropolitan areas than elsewhere in Sweden. In recent years, passenger car traffic has, however, increased more rapidly than the population. This partly because the transport distances have increased distances between residential areas and places of work as have longer with increasing urbanisation, and also because people grown choose to use their cars when travelling around the suburbs more than in the centre of towns. In Stockholm, between 1980 and 1987, car travelling increased by 17 per cent while the number of people travelling by public , transport dropped by 7-8 per cent during the same period. In Göteborg car travel has increased by 3-4 per cent annually over the last few years, while the number of people travelling by public transport decreased by 9 per cent between 1985 and 89. In Malmö, car traffic has increased by a few per cent per year, and between 1985 and 87 the number of people travelling by

TRAVEL HABITS IN SOME CITIES 1980 Degree land utilisation Choice transport type tor travelling to work

Source World Watch Paper 98. 64

ECOCYCLES

3$3‘;xli W

Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON public transport in Malmö dropped by 12 cent. Unless the physical and per economic situations change, this trend expected to continue. In an international perspective, a relatively large proportion of the travelling done in Stockholm done using public transport. The corresponding proportions for Goteborg and Malmö are substantially lower. Nearly one-third of the transports carried out many cities are short ones, done by bicycle or on foot. There also a great deal of distribution traffic, carried out by lorry. Planning of residential areas, services, places of work, public transportation and depots are all important factors that will affect future developments in transportation work. In large cities, automobile traffic gives rise to substantial disturbances including increased levels of air pollutants that damage human health, and noise. Traffic the foremost source of these disturbances. According to Swedish studies, urban air pollution causes between 300 and 2,000 new cases of cancer annually. Traffic accounts for roughly 70% of the emissions of carcinogenic substances, and substances that may affect the genes of people living in urban areas, the main problem being hydrocarbon emissions. Air pollution from traffic and emissions from other sources may affect

65 5 12-0576

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

human health both directly and by contributing to allergies and other types of over—sensitivity. Such health problems have increased in recent years. Noise from various sources may disturb peoples ability to work, sleep and relax, well affecting the human cardiovascular system. Calculations as as indicate that to three million people per day experience disturbance one from road traffic noise in Sweden. Traffic by far the main contributor to urban noise disturbance. In city centres and other urban areas, vehicle exhaust fumes account for roughly 60% of the emissions of oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. The transport infrastructure uses land and, in cities, where land most valuable, the land required for the traffic system poses large problems. For example, calculations for Stockholm indicate that traffic in the broad

sense nearly half the urban land area. Generally speaking, road traffic

uses requires more land than railway traffic. Roads and railways cut through the landscape and impact on large areas. The degree of disturbance they cause will depend the nature of the landscape. Roads and railways also give on rise to barrier effects, in that they are difficult to cross. Urban motorists in Sweden express ambivalence about cars and the environment. Human ecologist Emin Tengström studied motoring as a social phenomenon, and found that people tend to regard cars as an everyday necessity, but feel concern about what effects driving actually having. In Göteborg, travel by car increase by 5 per cent annually throughout the 1980s. Tengstrom sees no conflict between this fact and motorists ambivalence. But the burden motoring places on the environment becomes clearer, and the ambivalence explicitly expressed, this may generate sufficient mental energy to trigger individual initiatives and collective political action. There a clear relationship between any citys structure and its traffic patterns. The boom in housing construction during the 70s and 80s meant that people were spread out over vast areas, and was difficult for public transport to keep pace, and offer all neighbourhoods satisfactory proximity to public transport with good headways. On the other hand, more densely built-up cities makes more difficult to integrate all aspects of life into local ecological cycles, which are a prerequisite for sustainable cities.

A COMPARISON OF METROPOLITAN REGIONS Stockholm Göteborg Malmo City of City City of

Source The metropolitan traffic committee. 66

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES

Ethanol buses

in Stockholm

Since 1990, SL the Stockholm Local Mass Transport Company has had thirty—two ethanol-fuelled buses serving the city centre. The ethanol produced from by-products from a sulphate pulp mill in Domsjö, in northern Sweden, so the raw material wood. Ethanol can also be produced through fermentation of various agricultural products. Ethanol buses generate, for instance, far fewer emissions of nitrous oxides and particulates than diesel busses. There are considered to be no carbon dioxide emissions at all, as the raw material renewable. SL are very pleased with their experience from using the ethanol buses, and the predicted risk of increased wear and tear on the engine have proven unfounded. SL now wishes to introduce only ethanol-fuelled city centre buses 300 buses by 1998, but more expensive to run buses on ethanol than on diesel fuel, and so the future of ethanol will ultimately be a political issue. In 1990, the Stockholm municipal council adopted I 5°°"‘ a decision stating that planning to be concentrated BIRGIT ELIASSON on doing away with diesel—fuelled vehicles within five years and petrol—fuelled vehicles within fifteen to twenty years. But Stockholm far from being capable of fulfilling that objective today.

Photo BOSSE JOHANSSON

THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS AND THE POWER OF EXAMPLES

‘kw... Local work to achieve change requires the active in society, participation of everyone ether towards common environmental goals. This requires visions and creative thinking 69

ECOCYCLES l99243 SOU

he municipal organisation of Sweden has its own habts and inertia. T0

T

create sustainable cities, attitudes and decision—maki1g will processes have to be changed. Today, municipal planning foclses decisionon making. This focus must shift and become process—orientation a municipalities are to develop solution multipliers. Basicchange will also have to be based on inter-administration co-operation md extension of competence boundaries. There are three main challenges that must be faced forsreative thinking and change to take place in the sphere of Swedish muniipal authorities

Planning by Swedish municipalities carried out extremely an sectoral way. For example, one municipal authority responsible for physical planning, and others for issues relating to tle infrastructure, water, waste, traffic, and These issues must egin to be energy. seen holistically, and the various experts must help arother to identify one and implement measures. Municipal solutions for maintaining the technical iifrastructure for waste water, traffic, sanitation, etc. tend to be general high-tech ones. For example, all municipalities and all inhabitants tied to the are same type of solid waste and waste water management sstems. In other words, municipalities collect the rubbish from a city arartment block in the same way as from a rural farm, and according to the same principles in Stockholm as in villages Technological solutions for maintaining the inrastructure must be adapted to local conditions, aid local solutions developed to utilise potential for co-ordination. The actors in municipal deciáon-making and implementation processes ae professional. Decisions are made according to a highlystructured process, by municipa administrations and committees. Sub-optimisaion Of decisions in individual administrations makes difficult to have an overview of the general stuation. Because the actors are professional, thy part of are a tradition of facts and reportingin which inertia figures as a constant, rather nan change and creativity. The structure will hae to be changed to activate the actors, and work organisation adapted to the real prerequisitesof the matters at hand.

This chapter describes experitnce from five

municipalities Ystad, Örebro, Göteborg, Timrå

— and Övertorneå. These municipalties in size vary and commercial structure, and eacl cne has its own special environmental problems. Etch municipality has also chosen its own special vay to attack the environmental problems.

ECOCYCLES

Photo OLA SJÖSTEN

and in co—operation Ystad — city countryside

strive towards That work will, in itself, lead to changed attitudes and ways stad municipality has decided to

Ythe

of thinking. The aim of the subprojects to develop strategies development of ecological cycles between

for workin Ystad in each respective area both in accordance city and countryside, and to make Ystad into an

with three—year plan, and also until the year 2000. When the eco-municipality by the year 2000, Ystad cooperating a

sub—projects completed, there will be a run—inphase for with The Centre for the Urban Environment at the are

integration of strategies and attitudes amongst other Swedish Agricultural University on a project known as the new

municipal officials and politicians. Via the mass media, City and countryside in co-operation The project has

associations and organisations, schools, pre—schools, five subareas water, flora and fauna, waste, local

educational societies, etc.,the general public will be involved production of food processing and local production of

in attitude change.Concrete pilotprojects will be initiatedby bioenergy Change in the municipal organisation has

each Sub-group Within year, and provide Object lessons to been identified major prerequisite for implementing a as a the and ilic Public Well municipal Officials and broad municipal change in the direction of ecological Press as as

sustainability. Municipal officials P0liiici3nScycles and greater

and external researchers work together in the sub—proj ects.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

ÖREBRO

THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS AND THE POWER

OF EXAMPLES - WIDE-RANGING

ENVIRONMENTAL WORK

Environmental work at municipal level in Sweden has mainly comprised efforts to keep pollution under control. For example, municipalities have measured emission levels and compared them with limit values. the readings were in excess of the limit values, the municipalities intervened and demanded remedial action. In other words, municipalities have tried to ensure that pollution kept within the permitted limits often in was relation to centrally—established norms. Today, Örebro striving to implement preventive to reduce the environmental load, and, in measures a way to go further than the centrally-established minimum require. norms

The city of Örebro, with population of approximately 120,000 and

a a trade sector dominated by service and activated its environmental commerce, work the early 19805. ln 1981 they drew the first draft ofa municipal up environmental protection the final form of which adopted programme, was by the local government later. In 1989, Örebro two years appointed an environmental delegation, special organisation with representatives a from all the central municipal boards, and directly responsible the to municipal council. Its purpose to co-ordinate environmental work, was find new to about and experiment with unconventional ways go methods. In 1991, the environmental delegation superseded by was a standing committee the environment. The Örebro municipal on environmental for 1990-94 states that society be programme must structured on basic ecological principles. ln the foreword the the to programme, objectives of environmental work in the municipality described are as follows

Our aim to structure social developments around basic ecological a view, including ensuring that consumption and pollution resource must not exceed what nature can withstand. However, successful environmental policy requires more fundamental reassessment ofmany aspects of society. The aim of development work and social planning be must to improve economisation ofresources. We only achieve long-term can acceptable development by reducing consumption of natural our resources. We must adopt political decisions for limit values laid down by law, environmental surcharges, and specification of legal liability to — mention a few examples. We must make political decisions obtain to public transport solutions for traffic systems, and collective solutions our to the problems associated with systems, effluent and energy water, waste management. Public agencies and Boards of Directors, associations and industries must all contribute conservation, to energy procurement

SOU 199243

At a day nursery in central Orebro, children learn to bring ecocycles full course. After every mean, they clear the table, separate compostables into buckets, and carry them to the warm compost pile. The rich composted soil used to fertilise the childrens vegetable garden. Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

ECOCYCLES SOU l992z43

THE IMPORTANCE of environment friendly goods, environmentally sound manufacturing OF VISIONS AND processes and products. THE POWER a major political task to provide the prerequisites, through OF EXAMPLES information campaigns and the creation of public opinion, for adopting sufficiently effective laws and other ordinances. When conflicts arise between the interests of profit and the long—term, comprehensive interests of society in safeguarding the environment, the latter must be given precedence, via the organised, democratic forces in society. When conflicts arise between short—term employment factors and environmental considerations, precedence must be given to what nature withstand. Otherwise, in the long run, employment will also be can threatened.

ACTIVE PROMOTION

This the environmental protection programme adopted by the was municipality. But what did they do then Their work has progressed at several levels. The local government has not only played its part as a public Blekt eller oblekt- authority, but has also been active in promoting, demanding and innovating. - Ingen 5 k, Du kanner .. Establishment of the environmental delegation was a clear signal from the 1 local government to all its agencies that environmental work was being given high priority. How possible to get around the inertia often experienced when local government agencies to attack new problem are areas The solution used in Örebro to initiate co-operation beyond the was usual territorial bounds. In the past, municipal work had been extremely linear. Each section has dealt with its issues, and stayed out of those of others. Many obstacles own have been abolished by experimenting with working methods. One new example the Give the Environment Chance campaign, carried out by a the City Management Board. The campaign promoted a new life style to reduce the environmental load. The daily newspapers ran advertisements with headings including Keeping your home clean can be dirty work for —

nature on domestic chemicals, If you take your car when you don’t

need you’re taking yourself for a ride and Bleached or unbleached

You won’t feel the difference, but Mother Nature will on different kinds

Naturen svälla inte allt- of toilet paper. The purpose of the campaign was to help raise awareness

...ut ukunm um among own on environment, and was concluded with a festival for the environment in the town square, including a waste source separation competition between nam-k M mm nenmramnlnw ull politicians. A study made by Statistics Sweden mmmrPUW1V5 school children and W... after indicated people changed their purchasing habits the that many campaign. ,ml Rmgm . en mm Physical planning usually working on the basis of given guidelines. means There must be one pipe system for drinking water, one for waste water and Mother nature cannot swallow There be pipelines for and district one for storm water. must energy whatever we feed her. You heating. Roads to have specified dimensions, and there are to be a feel the difference are wont you certain number of parking spaces per square meter of dwelling space. use bleached or unbleached products but she will There for the distance from buildings to bus stops. When — are even norms

sou 199243 ECOCYCLES 6

adugårdsängen, an area planned on the basis of ecological principles, will be complete by the summer of 1992 when Örebro hosting trade fair known a as Housing ’92. The neighbourhood will consist of some 850 apartments in large and small apartment buildings built for over twenty housing associations private, public, and — condominium. The philosophy of the cycles of nature will be expressed at various levels, from the municipal master plan through technical design and appearance on site, to the lifestyles of the people living in the different buildings. The following principles have guided the work of the municipality

° The area was chosen because in easy reach of the town centre, about l km by bicycle. - The area will have both residential neighbourhoods and places of work. Probably about 500 people will work there. - Rain water will be collected. Ladugårdsängen will use soil infiltration and conduction to ponds for local storm

SOU 199243

Ladugårdsängen,

a new area in Orebro

water rain water management. This will make the storm water an asset to the area, instead of a load on the receiving waters. The soil will be the catchment site for phosphorous, metals and other substances normally transported to rivers and the sea with a detrimental impact on their quality. ° Reducing the number of parking spaces in residential neighbourhoods makes them somewhat more peopleoriented. Making new parking areas along the edges ofthe main roads and utilising existing parking spaces more rationally has made possible to reduce parking to 70 per cent of the normal parking standard. Where there used to be cars there are now garden allotments, which makes the environment pleasanter and increases the real estate value of the property. - Waste separation. Rubbish trucks will come to Ladugftrdséingen less and less frequently over time. The inhabitants will reduce the quantities of waste they produce and manage their own waste as far as possible. The waste management plans for the area provides for a variety of solutions, extensive source separation and composting. There are plans to provide the people living in the publicly-owned collective apartment house with a worm composting system. The condominium buildings have been built with thermal composting facilities, and special compost rooms alongside every street entrance. The privatelyowned buildings will have a suction system for waste separation. - Differentiated streets with traffic separation will increase safety and improve the environment. - The proximity ofrecreational facilities a golfcourse, sports hall, swimming centre and excellent parks the Sörby woods will make possible for the inhabitants of the area to do sports and be out of doors without needing a car. There was also a proposal during the early planning stages for local waste water treatment. A system of separate waste water systems was initially discussed, to make possible to conduct toilet waste water to a bio—gas plant and extract energy to obtain rich, usable sludge. However, these plans were abandoned owing to the high cost and some scepticism about the untested technology. A small number of the apartments will now be testing a new kind of water-economising toilet with considerably lower water consumption than a normal toilet 0.8 litres — contra the normal figure of 6 litres per flush.

sou |99243 ECOCYCLES

At Ladugérdsiingen, Örebro, of building and housing

new ways are tested. a mix between traditional building style and modern architecture.

Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

THE IMPORTANCE the newest area in Örebro, known Ladugårdsängen, going to be

as was OF VISIONS AND planned, traditional thinking was reversed, and new questions asked, THE POWER including Do we really have to follow all the specified planning OF EXAMPLES guidelines Do we have to plan for cars Do we have to have waste collection vehicles, etc. Planning work for Ladugårdsängen began on the basis of such perspectives, and although many of the ideas generated were not ultimately used right there, a whole new way of thinking about physical planning came into being. What happened can be described as the meeting of old and new ways of thinking planning in the l970s could be described as predominantly waste water planning. The capacity of the water and waste water network and population size in relation to services required determined the results of planning. A new area had to have enough people in to justify construction of primary schools and shops. Today, methodical planning on the basis of ecological factors has begun to dominate. One example of what this means . practice that all detailed planning the future to include environmental impact assessments.

RESOURCE MINIMISATION

But Ladugårdsängen only small, part of Örebro. The rest of the one new environmental work done there must be based on existing environments, including a densely-populated part of the city with mostly stone buildings, and other areas which have been built up throughout this century. The municipality emphasises words like resource minimisation, re-use, energy

conservation, energy production with renewable sources of energy solar

power, wind power, and hydropower, in stating its main objectives for environmental work. Cautious use of chemicals and consideration of what nature and living organisms can withstand are other ways in which this basic ecological view expressed. When comes to actual goals, the municipality has set a zero—emission limit for some toxic substances and others which only biodegrade very slowly i.e. no emissions at all. For other substances, the goal to keep pollution increases low relation to natural background levels. For polluting substances which occur nature, the goal to bring every pollutant down to a level safely below the lowest level at which tangible negative effects are known to occur. Another fundamental approach has been to attack environmental problems at source. This means

- Reducing emissions of acidifying substances rather than treating watercourses with powdered limestone. - Limiting noise disturbance rather than muffling it. - Economising with raw materials and promoting recycling.

As an aid in this work, and to raise awareness of the significance of environmental issues, a decision was adopted to introduce environmental impact assessments in municipal work beginning in 1991.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243 3 14.0 ; lfl..‘ v. .

BOSSE Photo JOHANSSON

Bicycles

— the ultimate environmental alternative

leetrie and public transport being promoted Biking a very good transport alternative. From the point cars are

E

environment friendly alternatives today, but some of view of resource conservation only surpassed by as walking. One disadvantage of biking that the risk of people go by bike ln Örebro, cannot miss the bikers when accidents rather high. Swedes are wearing more and more you many you look around the city of 12,()(). By Swedish standards, bike helmets, as protection against head injuries, which are Örebro size city, and the city has consciously often quite serious. would be possible to build with the risk an average routed separate bike paths from all the outlying areas into of collisions almost entirely out of existence, at very little the city centre. Once they get in, they can continue on expense in comparison with the total amounts of money undisturbed bike paths along the main roads, but have to being spent on our infrastructure. with the other kinds of traffic elsewhere. Örebro small enough city that basically possible get on a Between 1976 and 1990 the number of people cycling to bike everywhere. In large cities which in Sweden include to work increased from 25 to 42 per cent, and the number Malmö, Stockholm, and Göteborg should be possible to of people driving to work decreased from 53 to 43 per expand biking both over shorter distances for example cent. Ifmen were to alter their travel habits to be more like around the city centre, or from the outskirts into the city and women‘s,the percentage ofbikers would furtherincrease. combination with public transport. But bike traffic tends Visitors can join the ranks of the bikers by renting a to be forgotten when transport routes are planned. yellow city bike for fifteen kronor a day.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

THE IMPORTANCE In some problematic situations, for example in relation to pesticide OF VISIONS AND residues in water, various local agencies have collaborated to find solutions. THE POWER In that project, the environmental delegation worked with the environment OF EXAMPLES and occupational health administration, the town planning office, the labour market office, the County Administrative Board’s department of trade and industry, and representatives of agriculture. In 1990, the environmental delegation initiated a project in collaboration with affected farmers and the municipality, for the establishment of noncultivated buffer zones with natural vegetation along watercourses. Buffer zones prevent water pollution from soil particulates and precipitation. The municipality has drawn up detailed to be implemented for measures every section of its environmental protection specified what local programme, government bodies are responsible for implementing them and ranked the

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ECOCYCLES sou 199243

J

less travel

ointly-owned cars mean car

ViVallaBil has been working in Örebro in Sweden, but in has been extremely difficult Car C0-Op most cases

The

for ten years. People who once owned their Own Cars to find enough people who were interested in getting a co-op travel dramatically less by car after joining the co-op. off the ground. This disinterest stands in sharp contrast to the

The VivallaBil car co—opwas founded in 1982 in the stability of VivalaBil and the loyalty of its members over the

Vivalla area of Orebro. The original idea was to give years, Although many members have moved to other parts people toacar without having to own one, so that of Örebro, they have remained in the Car co-ops access coop, people Of lesser means Could also g0 the kind Of places appear to face a pedagogical problem. seems difficult to you need a Car tO reach. The aUth0ritieS Originally make non-members aware of the benefits the members who subsidised the project, but the co-op has now been have tried the system feel has completely self-sufficient for years. Joint, as opposed to individual, car ownership means Twenty-five households are members ofthe VivallaBil having to plan your driving in advance A co-operative car car co-op. The co-op rents a few extra cars in the summer, when demand higher. During the daytime, when the Photo CHRISTER PÖHNER members seldom drive, the co-op rents its cars to the municipality. Ten years of experience indicate that car co-ops can lead to an overall reduction in car travel. the idea spread widely, could contribute substantially to reducing the environmental load of motoring. The co-ops cars are all quite new and high standard, and they are economical to drive. Because they are utilised effectively, they also cost less than privatelyowned cars in terms of the environment. Although the coops cars are not expensive to operate, co-op members still drive considerably less than ordinary motorists. Members who sold their own cars to join the co-op drive less than half as much as they did before.

hy this In addition to co-operatively owned

wcars

being somewhat more difficult to get at they have to be booked and the key has to be picked -the individual driver feels the of his Sharing has multiple benefits. up expense a car or her car use much more clearly, because you only pay when you use it. costs between 185 and 220 kronor per day to hire and has to be returned with a full tank has to sacrifice the spontaneous joy rides a private car a car, owner of gas. you own your car, you are not nearly as owner can make. This difference may be one of the main distinctly of how much costs every time you use explanations forthe sparse interest in car co—ops, but also aware it. The cost of the petrol actually only a fraction of every one of the reasons co-operative car ownership can reduce the trip. Three-quarters of the cost paid at other times than environmental load in comparison with private ownership. when you are doing the actual driving, and include has been proposed that part of municipal traffic policy interest on loans, taxes, inspection fees, insurance, should be to contribute to the establishment of car co—ops. A maintenance, accessories, repairs, garage rent, tires, etc. general transition from private car ownership to collective If have these fixed expenses, but ownership could reduce road traffic and consequently also you own a car, you have paid them the marginal cost per kilometre reduce the need for expensive road construction projects. once you quite low. In this way, automobile ownership encour- Moreover, more people would travelby public transport. Car ages more car travel. co-ops could be encouraged through incentives such as free Efforts have been made to start car co-ops elsewhere parking, help with bookings, etc.

81 6 12-0576

ECOCYCLES S01 1992143

THE IMPORTANCE projects in order ofpriority by determining the date by which each treasure OF VISIONS AND to be implemented. THE POWER Follow up another important aspect of municipal enviromiental OF EXAMPLES work. The municipal council has highlighted the significance of environmental issues for the welfare ofthe population and the future ofthe municipality by closely monitoring the environmental work carried out by the local administrations. In dialogue with all the bodies involved, the environmental delegation has performed evaluations, and prepared written assessments of the work of each administration. The evaluations were made public the local press, and were also published the municitality’s personnel newsletter. The environmental delegation stated that tlis was very important in keeping up the interest of all parties involved. Örebro has be pioneer municipality in environnental proven to a protection work in other ways besides these organisational changes and new working methods. They have found new technologies and meth dS for

solving old problems.The districtheating system builtup by the munitipality

including a combined heat and power plant, CHP, based sold fuel e on wood chips, lumber from demolished buildings, etc. considered very environmentally sound. Its combustion processes effectixe and are controlled, and its sophisticated technology makes possible to substantially reduce the levels of most types of emissions. As an example ofthe ambitions ofthe municipality, the phn and energy BOIHUNBERG-SIPFREDRIKHOLM environmental protection programme propose measures to - Reduce environmental impact

HANDI.A - Reduce energy consumption

- Increase the use of renewable sources of energy

I

wuo

- Increase the proportion of wood fuels used at the CHP plant

Extremely

VANLIGTI

high goals have been stated for the CHP plant, including he use ofat least 50 percent wood fuel in the solid fuel boiler until 1994. This new VARDAGSHANDBOK rön EN amma uiuo will lower emissions of sulphur and than fpeat I OMARBETADE A mean mercury combustion OCH UTOKÅDE UPPLAGÅN an coal, and no increase of the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. A new energy plan will be drawn in 1992. One of the goals vill be up to take concrete measures to encourage the of renewable tyies of use energy. The goal of the municipality with regard to domestic and incustrial

l

waste to plan with a view to reducing waste quantities, its disriptive effects on human health and the environment, and optimum utilisaion of NU TOTALT190.000EX management In order to achieve this, waste to be regarled resources. as a resource, and the municipality has been instructed to aim for niaimum NATURIKYDDIIORININOEN recycling through source separation. One objective to reduce the total The consumer handbook waste fraction deposited by 50 per cent between 1990 and 1994. Environment Friendly Many will be implemented with regard measures to wa str. The Shop produced by the environmental protection programme details seventeen welve Swedish measures,

Nature Conservation

of which are ranked as high priority. These include to

Socie has been used in Orebro measures recuce or

well in number of other phase out entirely municipal organisations of disposable maerials, as as use Swedish municipalities in their recurring neighbourhood campaigns for special disposal of h2;1z.rdous campaigns. and study of the possibility of differentiating colection waste, a waste

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

tariffs to stimulate households and industries to separate their waste. A THE IMPORTANCE comprehensive waste management plan has been adopted, and the local OF VISIONS AND sanitation department has successful campaign to stimulate waste THE POWER run a separation. OF EXAMPLES Örebro municipality and the local tradesmen running a joint are campaign called the Black List to stimulate environmentally sound shopping, focusing on household use of chemicals and their environmental load. The campaign part of agreement with the retail trade in an effort an to limit the proportion of environmentally hazardous products in the product of the grocery, automotive, paint and construction sector. range The campaign has received a great deal of attention, and was copied by other Swedish municipalities. This campaign, in conjunction with the Environment Friendly Shopping campaign run by the Swedish Nature Conservation Society have made the people of arebro municipality more aware of their environmental impact, and of how a consumer’ s product choice can affect the environment. Relatively large environmental benefits have accrued from this collaboration with the retail trade. In the number of environmentally harmful one year, products sold reduced by 75 cent because manufacturers changed was per the chemical contents of their products. Some suppliers have also stopped importing products containing hazardous substances. Other examples of ongoing practical environment work in ärebro include efforts to improve water quality in the Svartå River, the water supply of Örebro. Those efforts include the introduction of buffer source zones, adjacent to watercourses where land utilisation limited. areas This achieved in negotiation with farmers and land owners in which they encouraged to safeguard the water from nutrient leaching primarily of are nitrogen and phosphorous and pesticide leaching. The establishment of the Örebro Environmental Protection Centre in

1985 another initiative. The centre works with organic gardening and was experiments with alternative forms of cultivation and composting. The centre tours for school and pre—school children, teaching them about runs ecological relationships and the laws of nature. And a private initiative known the ecology bus makes possible for the school children of as Waste separated into four ärebro to learn about the cycles of nature on site. main fractions batteries, — Since 1985, the municipality has also consulted regularly with all the glass newspapers, transparent environmental and nature conservation associations via the nature and tinted glass.

conservation council, on t t e v which members from the b organisa-

.J13

various interest tions serve. The council

s

discusses various plans and proposals for improving the conditions for the flora and BATTERIER FÃRGAT GLAS fauna of the region, and its i biological diversity.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

GÖTEBORG

THE IMPORTANCE

THE

OF VISIONS AND THE POWER

ENVIRONMENT PROJECT

OF EXAMPLES

- A CATALYST

In 1987 the Swedish government appointed special delegation The a Göteborg Environment Project. The of the delegation purpose was to produce a plan for substantial improvements in the Göteborg environment over a ten-year period. Traditionally, environmental protection measures have only been implemented when required by law under threat of or new legislation. The Goteborg Environment Project chose different strategy a for its work

r Let us end this stalemate If the authorities and the environmental

organisations continue to regard industry the cannot make as enemy we any progress. Let us cease to see only the problems, and strive instead to co—operate where we can. We have problem let solve a — us together

The Goteborg Environment Project defined the three main problem areas as traffic, emissions of hydrocarbons from petroleum handling and refineries, and chemicals in society. GOING FOR A BETTER Today, production processes and products, rather than industrial

ENVIRONMENT emissions are the main problem. has been estimated that in the

manufacturing industry, the quantities of environmentally harmful substances associated with products hundred—fold in comparison are one with those associated with emissions. Increasingly sophisticated purification technologies can no longer solve the environmental problems caused by chemicals. The problems must be dealt with by applying at source, a philosophy of ecological cycles, on the basis of utilisation of and resources re-use. The Göteborg Environment Project has had catalytic effect a on environment work in Göteborg. Co-operation has been initiated with Volvo the largest automobile manufacturer in Sweden, with its head office in Göteborg and other companies, and there has been consultation about a number of hazardous substances. A joint action for programme avoiding these substances replacing them with less hazardous has or ones been drawn up. This working model, using direct Contact with industry, proved successful. For example, the largest Swedish textile detergent producer now makes all environmentally sound detergent, and an new, Volvo has adopted an intention of eliminating cadmium, asbestos mercury, and chromium entirely from their manufacturing and products. processes One of the largest shipping companies serving the port of Göteborg, Stena Line, with both ferry and international freight traffic. Stena Line°s vessels have more than twenty arrivals to and departures from Göteborg

190243 ECOCYCLES sou

With its large port, refineries and industries, Göteborg u city facing many environmental challenges.

Photo PETER ÅHREN

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

THE IMPORTANCE daily, year round, and transport than five million and more passengers to OF VISIONS AND from Denmark and Germany annually. THE POWER Stena Line has now drawn environmental including up an programme, OF EXAMPLES a project for developing new technologies to purify diesel exhaust fumes. Stena Line has used low-sulphur oil since 1989, thus effecting annual an reduction in sulphur dioxide emissions of 600 tonnes. They longer no use their diesel engines to generate electricity in port, but have quayside installations instead. Their waste water, solid waste and oil disposed of in closed excess are processes. They have reviewed their use of chemical products on board, and reduced the number of chemical products used from 156 to 10. The tonsyear environment taken into in relation their entire product account to range, from the carrier bags in the duty free shop to the napkins the paper n rx restaurants.

CONSUMER POWER

Municipal environmental work has also been re-focused. More attention being paid to problems associated with products and product consumption. This marks a new phase in environmental work attacking the problem at source instead of treating process emissions. In the past, products have been seen mostly linearly, moving from material to product to waste. raw Today we must see the product in its cycle, so that products whose lifetime finished may serve as raw materials for production new processes Göteborg has run several maj environmental information campaigns or 20, aimed at the general public. The first Practice what preach one, you was about the effects of chemicals the environment, and what each on person can do to reduce resource waste and the spread of toxic substances. The L i advice was straightforward buy deposit bottles instead of non—retumable 19861987198819891990 — ones, buy unbleached toilet paper, etc. This advice meant to be was easy The collection of used bafleries for everyone to follow without major sacrifices. An ongoing, intensive has been succesful. campaign being run to promote source separation and separate collection of glass, paper, batteries, and hazardous waste. Goteborg also has ;mall a fleet of environment trucks which circulate residential among areas according to a timetable. People may bring their hazardous waste tc their local truck, including everything from old paint tins to fluorescent light bulbs and chemicals. In 1990, all Goteborg households were issued an environmental directory by the municipality. Most people in Goteborg environmentally are aware and willing to be environmentally sound, but they dont always knowhow. The directory full of advice how to clean without abrasive chenicals on using traditional methods, etc. also lists detergents and cleming many agents which are good environmental choices. The environmental directory aroused a storm of criticism, from the chemicals industry and other., but contributed to environmental in the general public. awareness Göteborg municipality has instituted two projects with viw to now a measures at source, Chemicals cleanup and Environmental awarmess in procurement. Experience from Sweden and elsewhere indicate that

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

have deal of manufacturers. The Chemicals THE IMPORTANCE consumers a great power over cleanup campaign based cyclic of thinking. Its main aim to OF VISIONS AND on a way substantially reduce the of environmentally hazardous chemicals in THE POWER use Goteborg. OF EXAMPLES The Chemical Products Act stipulates that the importer, manufacturer of chemical product also responsible for seeing to that the or user a product not harmful to mankind the environment. The task of the or authorities that companies bear this responsibility for their to ensure products. In reality, the Act not enforced. Many companies use hazardous chemicals, and there such chemicals on the shop shelves as well. are many The Act also contains exchange regulation. This means that of two an equivalent products, the least environmentally harmful one to be used.

mg kg TS

.2 F

A

The cadmium content of the waste sludge from the regions 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 waste water treatment plant. I976 77

The exchange regulation applied to accelerate the phasing out of environmentally hazardous chemicals used in Goteborg. The Chemicals Cleanup campaign works at many levels and with many methods. Information to households one way of reducing the use of some chemicals. This project continues in the same spirit as the Practice what Preach campaign and the environment directory. But an even more you important aspect of the campaign its co—operation with the manufacturers, industry and commerce, and the major consumers. One of the concrete project initiated in relation to car washing detergents. In Goteborg, 300,000 litres of concentrated car washing liquid containing aromatic substances, solvents, tensides and complexing agents used annually. This annual consumption gives emissions of 100 tonnes are of turpentine to the air. The Chemicals Cleanup campaign has drawn up a technical specification

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

THE IMPORTANCE for an environmentally sound washing detergent. Briefly, would have car OF VISIONS AND to contain only environmentally hazardous chemicals, and thus non— to THE POWER satisfy certain standards with regard to toxicity, bio—degradability, and bio- OF EXAMPLES accumulation. would not be allowed to contain than five more per cent tensides. Several manufacturers have produced new car washing detergents using paraffin or rape oil—based micro—emulsions their active component as instead of turpentine. The Chemicals Cleanup campaign has begun collaboration with car washing firms, most of which have agreed to test the new, environmentally-approved car washing detergents. Municipal staff will measure emission from these car washes and check their washing results. The Chemicals Cleanup campaign has attacked the problem of air pollution from diesel powered vehicles in similar Today diesel a way. fuelled vehicles pose the greatest pollution problem in relation to Goteborgs road traffic. The Swedish authorities have classified diesel fuels into three environmental categories. As diesel fuel chemical product, its a use subject to the substition principle in the Chemical Products Act. In other words, The Chemicals Cleanup campaign that using diesel says everyone fuel must be sure to use the least environmentally-harmful type. The Chemicals Cleanup campaign both municipal authorities and private urges companies to comply, and has been successful. More and people more are using the most environmentally sound type of diesel fuel today.

THE MUNICIPALITY AS A CONSUMER

We should all practice what we preach. Goteborg municipality major a consumer of different products, with total annual procurements of SEK l—2 billion. The municipality made a number of decisions the basis of on environmental considerations in the 1970s and 80s. For example

- Only low—sulphur oil be used in production. may energy v A11 petrol-fuelled vehicles purchased to be equipped with catalytic are

converters before this was required by law in Sweden in 1989 and be

non— metallic. - Municipal vehicles are to be run on unleaded petrol light diesel fuel. or

In 1990, the Goteborg local government adopted action for an programme environment friendly procurement, making Goteborg the first municipality Sweden to place special emphasis the environment in all its on procurement. The importance of in the environmental consumers process must not be underestimated, and Goteborg such major that a consumer municipal procurement policy affect producers, encouraging them can to develop more environment friendly products. The municipality took a comprehensive approach, stating that the environmental impact of a

product must be taken into consideration from cradle raw material

to grave waste. This means that

- During a product’s manufacture and lifetime, shall give rise little to as environmental damage possible, from manufacture through as consumption to final disposal,

sou 1992;43 ECOCYCLES

fonsYear THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS AND N THE POWER 1°°°° OF EXAMPLES

8000 Sulphur dioxide

6000 Nitrogen oxides

2000 Emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides from Gothenburg Energ Ltds installations have een 1978 I 984 1988 1990 considerably reduced.

° Products must not be harmful to the consumeruser from an occupat-

ional health and safety viewpoint, - When becomes waste, a product shall be biodegradable or reusable, Product manufacture and to be based on economical use of raw 0 use are material and energy resources. The purpose of the municipal action plan to encourage producers and suppliers to think creatively and to build up their own expertise and their abilities to choose the least environmentally harmful goods. In order to obtain more factual information on which to base procurement decisions, the municipality now demands that every supplier produce an environmental label for its products, stating whether the product contains certain hazardous chemicals, what kind of packaging material used, how distributed, etc. The municipality of Goteborg has also adopted various sub— decisions not to purchase products containing hazardous chemicals. These include products containing freons or requiring the use of freons to manufacture, products containing the very common solvent l-l—1 trichlorethane, found in many items, and which has a degrading effect on the ozone layer. The municipality has also adopted a decision not to purchase furniture or construction material made from wood from the tropical rain forests unless can be proven that the material comes from a sustainable forestry industry. The new environmental awareness has gained a foothold in industry, at car washes, amongst lorry drivers and general consumers. The result has been that each of the city dwellers bear a responsibility for improving the environment, and everyone has begun to participate in the work to achieve sustainable development.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

TIMRÅ

THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS AND THE POWER

OF EXAMPLES - CLEANING UP FROM

OLD POLLUTION

Timrå a municipality the Baltic coast of northern Sweden, with on roughly 19,000 inhabitants. Today, Timrå part of one of the most industrialised regions in Sweden. The region early to be industrialised, was because was rich in forest land and rivers for timber floating, and because the harbour conditions on the coast were advantageous. There were sawmills along the small inland watercourses in the region as early as during the sixteenth century. The last four generations of inhabitants in the region have really claimed the coastal region for industrial development, and pollution worse today in the Timrå region than almost anywhere else in Sweden. In order to deal with the serious environmental problems in Timrå and the adjacent municipality of Sundsvall, in 1989 the Swedish government appointed a delegation The Sundsvall-Timrå Environment Project -to review the environmental situation in the region and propose measures for improving the environment in theses neighbouring municipalities considerably within ten years. The members of the delegation were local politicians, representatives of industry, and appointed experts. One aspect of the work of the delegation was to survey the risks associated with old industrial areas where environmentally hazardous operations are or have been carried out. Many of these sites also contain old landñlls with environmentally hazardous waste. The delegation made a risk assessment of every industry they inventoried, with view to identifying a and evaluating the remaining environmental and health risks. The risk assessments are based on on-site inventories, knowledge of industrial processes, the hazardous properties of various substances, historical Clean by the 2000. documentation, year etc.

A SYSTEM FOR ASSESSING ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS. Class Risk level Recommendations

l high Study and analyse the risks detail.

very Retros ective or rotective measures proba heed irrespective luture land use. 2 high Study the

thoroughl

area Measures ma particu ary . be necessary

when land uti isation changes

3 medium Study and the risks. Extensive assess

measures probably not required.

4 low On the basis current knowledge, only

a simple study needed, and no protective measures.

199243 ECOCYCLES sou

The Timrå Sundsvall re ion has had many industries an the facto buildings have been demo ished. Photo SUNDSVALLSTIDNING

The pulp mill Östrand and new the Wifsfa varv paper industry.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

THE IMPORTANCE The following risks appraised were OF VISIONS AND - Chemical risks such as corrosion and fire damage, toxication, cancer, THE POWER genetic impact, foetal damage, etc. OF EXAMPLES ° Geologicalgeotechnical risks such as subsidence, erosion, and landslides - Other physical risks such as the risk of accident owing to abandoned and disused, buildings, equipment, and waste in the quays, areas. The results of the inventory indicate that there physical risks such are as rotting quays, leftover pilings, decaying buildings and miscellaneous rubbish in all the areas. Such risks are relatively to eliminate. The easy chemical risks are considerably more difficult to and to The assess manage. Photo areas that were classified as highest risk those with pulp and SUNDSVALLS TIDNING were paper, and chemical and mechanical engineering industries. Different types of retrospective treatment are needed to clean the that have been up areas subjected to most damage. Retrospective treatment collective term a for all measures implemented to limit or eliminate the traces of previous a type of land utilisation, with the effects of the remaining environmental disturbances for man and the environment in mind. Retrospective

treatment must not, in turn, give rise to new environmental problems. Often the most suitable treatment to leave the pollutants site, but on encapsulate them to limit their spread. Another type of treatment to decide what type of land utilisation the suited to in other respects and area implement the necessary measures for that In such encapsulation use. cases usually insufficient, as shafting, piling and filling are often required. Some of this type of retrospective treatment work must be considered exploitation expenses. Other methods which be useful include may

0 Limiting land use, for example by prohibiting shafting and construction. 0 Cutting off the damage by covering over or encapsulating to so as halt leaching of environmentally hazardous substances.

- Decontamination or detoxification to remove harmful pollutants.

LESSONS TO BE LEARNED

How can future problems be avoided The best of solving problem, way a of course, to ensure that never occurs. This to be truism, but appears a There physical risks what really being that, from cradle products are as means sure to grave, and rotting quays, Ieftover ilings, the processes by which they are produced are as little disruptive to the decaying buildin s an

miscellaneous rugbish environment as possible. we handle less heavy metals ,solvents, etc.,

in many of the closed they will cause less disruption to the environment, and less retroactive industrial sites. treatment will be needed to deal with their effects. The story of the Timrå- Sundsvall region very illuminating, and emphasises that nothing goes on forever. If, the 1950s, someone had looked at the three huge pulp plants in the area where the Ljungan River out into the Baltic Sea, and runs claimed that twenty years later those activities would be at standstill, he a would probably not have been believed. One of the main problems associated with risk assessment has been that very difficult to get accurate information about discontinued operations. If, retrospectively, we know where hazardous substances have been

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

in use, possible to limit the areas that have to be assessed. has also THE IMPORTANCE been shown that necessary to have documentation of pipelines, OF VISIONS AND sedimentation basins, etc. in order to make accurate retrospective THE POWER assessments of the environmental risks. OF EXAMPLES In December 1990, the delegation presented its findings in Clean by 2000, a joint environmental programme for the two municipalities. contains proposals to raise ambitions and standards for environmental work as well as providing a comprehensive overview of the status of the environment. The delegation determined that work should be focused on the following areas - Cleaning up old pollution, including industrial waste on the Baltic sea bed outside Sundsvall and along the coastline, as well as high levels of toxic mercury and caesium in fresh water fish. - Reducing vehicle exhaust and noise from traffic. - Reducing waste quantities and emissions to air and water from the major process industries and municipal waste water treatment plants. - Safeguarding the forest and agricultural landscapes and their flora and fauna. - Increasing knowledge and awareness of environmental issues. The delegation stated that the main responsibility for bringing the established goals to fulfilment was, firstly, with the municipal politicians, the four largest companies in the municipality and, with respect to the national infrastructure, the state. But others will also have to participate all the proposals presented by the delegation are to be implemented. Municipal authorities and committees will have a key role to play, and both large and small industries will have to contribute. N GOs can also help with information and education. And everyone living in the municipality will have to adapt theirliving and buying habits to what the environment can withstand. The report states that the basis for positive social development in the Timrå region high environmental quality, both in urban and rural areas. The quality of the environment decisive to whether or not people choose to live in an area. Environmental protection and the availability of education and employment are the issues which will mean most for the future of Timrå in the long run. The plan drawn up by the environmental delegation may be the seen as first leg of a ten-year relay race. Many markers will be passed along to members of the team inside and outside the region. The plan proposes that the goals be followed up with annual environmental audits, presenting developments to the inhabitants of the municipality, its politicians and its businesses. In the opinion of the municipality, the social contract between themselves and the individuals and industries in the region to co—operate with a view to solving the environmental problems by the year 2000 the most important result of the project. As soon as the scope of the problems was revealed, was clear to the municipality that a municipal organisation alone not enough. was Environmental improvement requires the active, articulate, effective and knowledgeable participation of all parties involved the goal to be achieved. 93

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

ÖVERTORNEÃ

THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS AND THE POWER

INITIATING THE ECO-

- OF EXAMPLES

MUNICIPALITY PROJECT

The concept of eco-municipality was launched in the Nordic countries

in 1980 by Suomussalmi municipality in Finland. Three years later, the

concept introduced in the Swedish municipality of Övertorneå. These was then remained the only eco—municipalities in Scandinavia for several years. The two municipalities are quite similar, both being northerly and sparsely populated, and both suffering from large—scale exoduses to metropolitan areas further south in the 1960s and 70s. In a national perspective, unemployment was high. Both municipalities had also been subject to internal restructuring processes which meant that the larger conurbations had grown rapidly at the expense of the villages. Both municipalities were in extremely difficult situations, and had attempted all the traditional means of reversing their problems with no success. This may explain why they were tempted to try a new, unconventional method. Between 1983 and 1985, Övertorneå took part in national project a known as Municipalities and the future. The idea of eco-municipalities was born in this project, as a comprehensive developmental strategy for Övertorneå. Although the development work carried out in ävertomei has not yet been thoroughly evaluated, quite clear that things are considerably brighter in the municipality today than in 1983. The municipality has been revitalised, and small business have been started, creating

1-o9rrR6nNniEué1Ivn

many new

N.or.6MvE1.Ru

hundreds of employment opportunities. Altemative gardening has become very popular, an eco—village has been established, and a health centre founded. Regional culture having a renaissance, and this boosting self-

Growth power respect and local self-confidence. All in all, the spirit of pessimism has

been reversed, and the social climate far more positive than was. is, of course, difficult to distinguish between cause and effect, but there no doubt that the eco—municipality has provided Övertorneå with concept a collective developmental force. As described, the ambition of bringing new, enduring employment opportunities Övertorneå the driving force behind launching the to was eco-municipality concept. The natural environment was relatively undisturbed, and the inhabitants of the municipality were adamant about its remaining so. This was partly because agriculture and forestry were still

the main industries and provided a livelihood for many people. But for the

people of Overtorneå, Mother Nature’s pantry also supplemented their salaries. Hunting, fishing and berry picking are examples of activities which are still important sources of extra income for many people there. This informal sector an important one, and the proximity of nature also a key aspect of people’s lifestyle.

sot 100243 ECOCYCLES

Photo EIVON CARLSON

Eco-tourism isone of the new

industries in Overforneå.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

THE IMPORTANCE The eco-municipality concept was a development strategy focused on OF VISIONS AND the excellent environment, the local structure of trade and industry, and the THE POWER local life style. New employment opportunities were to be created with a OF EXAMPLES view to the interplay between man and nature. Although the eco— prefix originally stood for ecology, soon began to stand for economy as well. The 1986 action plan for the Ecotope in avertomei Foundation states

Economic development and ecological balance will, thus, be united in one and the same development strategy. We see this as the best way of utilising what this municipality has to offer in order to promote regional development.

THE BOTTOM-UP PERSPECTIVE

The work begun in Övertorneå developing the concept of on eco- THE FOLLOWING FIFTEEN municipality has been emulated elsewhere in Sweden. A network has been MUNICIPALITIES ARE PARTICIPATING IN THE established the preliminary Eco-municipality project and fifteen — — ECOMUNICIPALITY PROJECT municipalities are members.. The following points may serve as a summary of work in the eco-

Municipaify Population municipalities to date

Hällefors 9 500 0 Use of the eco-municipality concept as an overall vision liberates Kungsör 8 500 development potential in a municipality. Everyone pulling in the same

Lindesberg 25 000

direction facilitates development work.

Ljusnarsberg 6 500

° Co-operation between like-minded municipalities under the umbrella Nora 10 500 of the eco—municipality fruitful exchanges of knowledge concept opens up

Nynäshamn 21 OOO and information between municipalities, despite their possible

Orsa 7 300 geographical, cultural and structural differences. Eco—municipalities are also beginning to experience themselves jointly as a power factor

Smedjebacken 13 300

with a potential impact on national social developments. Sala 21 OOO ° The eco-municipality concept breaks with the traditional sectorial $orse|e 4 OOO division of society, and facilitates tackling structural problems. On the Tierp 20 OOO other hand, difficult find financial solutions for holistic more to Timrå 18 500 projects like these, which do not fit into the cubby—holes of any given Tranås 18 OOO sectoral organisation of society. - The bottom-up perspective has made easier for the project to

Uppsala kommun-

become rooted in the participating municipalities, Owing to their very delsnömnden different points of departure, has been important that, on the basis of

Almunge-Knutby 16 OOO

this bottom-up directive, the municipalities have had free hands to Övertorneå 6 OOO organise, determine priorities, and choose strategies individually. The

concept of the eco—municipality does seem to have been adopted seriously by the participating municipalities, which would hardly have

been possible without the bottom- up perspective.

- Opportunities to share experiences and be given joint training and counselling will remain important for the future. This must also be designed with the greatest possible flexibility, to suit the changing needs of each municipality over time.

199243 ECOCYCLES sou THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIONS AND THE POWER OF EXAMPLES

Even north of the Arctic circle, the

vegetables grow green

Photo EIVON CARLSON

97 7 12-0576

T0 achieve sustainable urban

development, measures will have to

be implemented locally in addition

in international

fora

ECOCYC E SOU 199243

he demands for long—term sustainable development imply improving

T

the quality of life for all of mankind. This can only be achieved in a world order in which poverty has been eradicated. With rapid our global urbanisation, a rapidly increasing segment of the world population living in urban slums under unacceptable conditions. This that the means environment, development and urban renewal are intimately interrelated phenomena. In an ecological perspective, contemporary cities in Sweden and — elsewhere in the world are not sustainable over the long term. To —— achieve a sustainable world, every city will have to change. This our common responsibility. This book presents a number of concrete examples technical and — organisational of how some urban problems are being solved. Other — countries, with different cultural and historical backgrounds and different conditions will, of course, have to find solutions of their own. But all efforts to find new solutions to urban problems should share one aim to bring ecological cycles full course wherever possible. This joint search for new solutions to urban development requires international co—operation. We need to exchange experience, globally and locally, and to implement concrete collaborative projects.

REGIONAL CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE

At a regional workshop arranged by the Economic Commission for Europe

ECE in Örebro, Sweden, 3-6 May 1992, strategies for sustainable urban

development were discussed. Some fifty experts from fifteen countries including the Baltic states participated, as well as representative of the Commission of the European Community, the OECD and UNCHS HABITAT. The purpose of the seminal was to discuss and exchange experience on how various actors can contribute to more sustainable urban development. The discussions were conducted in four theme areas with a joint concluding discussion chaired by Ms. Görel Thurdin, the Swedish Minister of Physical Planning. The themes of the working groups were

Urban structure based on ecological principles. . Sustainable development of the built environment for sound and safe . housing Sustainable housing operation based cooperation between and on users management. Women’ s participation in the planning and management of housing -— a path to sustainability

The participants at the seminar in good agreement that number of were a measures focusing on the local, national, national and global levels will have to be implemented to achieve a development towards increased

Photo BOSSEJOHANSSON

sustainability. All these measures will have to be based on a number of The Chairpersons at the ECE

generally accepted principles that social and guidelines workshog in front of the old serve a norms as castle in Orebro. From left to for proposing concrete instruments. drawing strategies for sustainable up right Ms. Sirkka Hautoiörvi, ECE, urban development. The main principles highlighted at the seminar were Mr Douglas Stewart, Canada,

Ms. Görel Thurdin, Sweden, Ms.

- That access to a good environment a human right and should apply Anne Querrien, FranceOECD,

individual in society. Ms. Lisbeth Fall, Sweden and Mr. to every Nicholas Hanley, EC. That everyone in society should have the right to information and be

given the opportunity to participate in the decision-making process, on

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

TIME T0 ACT democratic terms. The participation of women should receive attention NOW and be encouraged. — - That decisions should be taken and measures implemented as close as possible to the individuals affected by them the principle of subsidiarity. — - That the principle of ecological cycles should be the guiding principle with regard to use of natural resources. All such use should remain within the limits for what mankind and nature can withstand. - That PPP the polluter pays principle should always be applied. — — ° That the principle of substitution should prevail when one product environmentally preferable to another, the environmentally sounder product shall be used to replace the currently used one. Environmental work should always be done on the basis of the preventive v principle and the precautionary. principle.

Many examples were presented at the seminar, showing ways in which sustainable living and housing conditions can be achieved. The discussions made clear that there are many differences in different parts of Europe today with regard both to the problems and the resources available to solve them. Of environmental protection requirements and the rate of course, developments must take these differences into account. While problemsolving for western Europe focuses on changing lifestyles, the solutions in the east must focus more on retaining a resource—conserving mentality as people’s living conditions improve. One vision that was presented was the drawing of a new form of market economy based on ecological up cycles. A rough sketch of five steps towards sustainable development was presented by one of the working groups. The steps were

Ignorance The environmental problems are unknown. — Lack of interest The environmental problems are known but people do not care about them. Faith in technology People imagine that new technology will solve —— all environmental problems. Towards sustainability Conversion of society in the direction of ——— more environmentally—adapted developments has begun. Absolute sustainability The ecological cycles have been brought full — course.

No city in the world has yet reached step five perhaps even a — utopian vision. But the seminar considered visions a necessity. The absence of visions has led too often to the creation of poorly-structured societies which are very difficult to change once the environmental problems begin to be clear. Physical planning has a vital part to play in this respect, as the tool for shaping long-tenn visions and integrating them in the local decision—making processes. The Chairrnan’s summary of the seminar established the need for creative thinking in terms of many aspects of housing, building and

SOU 199243 ECOCYCLES

planning. The Athens Declaration, the Bible of all planners, argues for TIME T0 ACT a functional division of cities, with residential neighbourhoods and working NOW — areas strictly separated. This needs to be reconsidered today. Users must be involved in the planning process at an early stage. A large group of people, namely women, are often neglected in this process. Women’s experience often different from that of men women tend to be the — consumers and men the producers. Women have an everyday perspective that important to bear in mind when planning buildings and cities. Examples of new ideas and solutions were also presented at the seminar. Although most work today ongoing within relatively narrow bounds, the seminar did emphasise the need for new kinds of regional exchange and cooperation at all levels global and regional, national and local. The old —— institutions must co—operate more and adapt their working methods to the new conditions allying to international work today. But the seminar also pointed out that focusing on the large global issues insufficient real — change happens at the local level.

GLOBAL NETWORKS

FOR LOCAL WORK

Environmental policy to date has been characterised by a top—down perspective. In the future, a bottom-up perspective we need, one in which individuals may be actors rather than passive participants. The local

level and organisations for municipal authorities and cities will thus gain

importance. The importance of the local level in promoting sustainable development was one of the things that was very clear at the thirtieth world congress of the International Union of Local Authorities IULA, held in Oslo in 1991. The congress adopted a declaration on the environment, health and life styles, with a view to stimulating local authorities and cities to invest in long-term sustainable development by integrating the environment, health and social justice into economic development. The IULA declaration particularly emphasises the importance of increased conservation of energy and greater effectiveness in its use, as well as the development of renewable source of energy with a minimum impact on health and environment. also states that the human impact on the climate must be reduced, and measures taken to maintain cultural and biological diversity. And, finally, the declaration stresses that all parties in society should have the right to participate in making the decisions that affect our environment, health and social justice in relation to resource exploitation and the structure of society. To achieve sustainable urban development, many measures will be needed, as well as co—operation at the local, national, regional, and global levels. Global networks will be needed at each and every one of these levels.

ECOCYCLES SOU 199243

IULA

a worldwide network for

-

he Intemational Union of Local Authorities, IULA, an IN RESPECT OF LOCAL AND

T

international organisation for municipalities and cites REGIONAL CONCERNS around the world. IULA represents some 30,000 local

organisations in over 80 countries. An action plan for local Ensure the right of all interested parties in the community work on improving urban environments was adopted at the . to be consulted as well as to participate in public thirtieth world congress, held in Oslo in June 1991. decision—making aimed at ensuring that environment,

health concerns and social equity are given highest

AGENDA FOR ACTION

priority in development decisions.

the right and duty of all Local and Regional Authorities Develop detailed plans for sustainable management of to set priorities to and decide the means of achieving . the environment and of natural resources. All budgeting, sustainable development. Sustainable development will investment, policy and administrative decisions must require the integration of environment, health and social be consistent with these plans. equity concerns into the economic development of their

communities. Recognising that the shared environment binds Establish and vigorously and consistently enforce legal . all Local and Regional Authorities to a common future, we, sanctions; and advocate the establishment of effective

the delegates at IULA World Congress 1991, strongly urge penalty and liability provisions for the payment of

the rigorous implementation of the following agenda for appropriate compensation.

action. Use economic incentives and disincentives in applying . environmental policies. IN RESPECT OF GLOBAL Promote the establishment of local indicators of CONCERNS . environmental quality.

a. Support national and international measures to improve Develop information to promote programmes energy conservation and energy efficiency and to develop sustainable management of the environment and of

source of energy benign to the environment and human health support systems. Emphasise environment and

health. health matters in all education and programmes personnel training. Promote the elimination of substances depleting the ozone

layer. Promote intersectoral action and build alliances with . public authorities at all levels to achieve sustainable c. Join in national and international efforts to reduce the development and have and impact on environmental levels of carbon dioxide, methane and other ’ greenhouse quality. gases’ causing global atmospheric warming.

Initiate co-operation between local authorities, the Join in national and international measures which aim at . employers and employees organisations, the business reducing the emission of air pollutants such as nitrogen sector and community groups, thus combining resources oxide, sulphur dioxide, and heavy metals. and grass roots development expertise. One way of

e. Support activities related to the conservation of cultural organising such co-operation would be to establish

and biological diversity and genetic resources, including local councils for sustainable development.

the conservation of significant areas of virgin forests and

other important habitats including the wildlife and peoples

native to these habitats.

ECOCYCLES sou 199243

actors at all levels

consumption and adopt conservation Reduce energy SPECIFIC LOCAL AND REGIONAL Establish and support energy pricing policies programmes. MEASURES the which encourage energy efficiency. Support

application of renewable and environmentally benign Raise citizens’ awareness of healthy lifestyles. Adopt

. such solar policies which facilitate and reward healthy choices and energy sources, as power.

which make these the socially most acceptable ones. and rural which Adopt land use plans, both in urban areas,

Moderation of excessive consumption should be actively . preserving healthy natural and human environments aim at

encouraged in order to halt unnecessary use of natural growth. Such plans and at halting uncontrolled urban

and limit adverse consequences on the sustainable resources should promote the long—terrn principles of

environment. development rather than short—term economic advantage,

based primary and must be guided by the need to reduce energy Strengthen district health systems on

. consumption. Protect and expand in cities to health with integrated management system in green areas care, an that people do not lose the sense of nature, crucial which professionals in many fields, as well as lay ensure

mental and physical well—being. These policies must be people, implement preventive measures at the to can co—ordinated with policies public transportation, community level. on

housing, social welfare, and health promotion.

comprehensive health promotion Work out a strategy . in general and particularly in the Global Strategy of Health for All by the Strengthen mass transport based on .

WHO. The health promotion the cities, by improving the efficiency and availability of Year 2000 suggested by

developing leadership for public transport services such railways, light rail, strategy should include as

systematic health education for all, underground trains, and buses. Discourage the use of primary health care,

encouraging social networks and providing employment private in urban areas by all appropriate means. cars

minimising unemployment. Devise physical planning and traffic management policies schemes aiming at

which promote urban development based on sound and

Implement effective water supply, delivery, re—use and clean transport infrastructure and low transport demand. . waste water treatment programmes. Reduce loss of Encourage and support bicycle and pedestrian

water during delivery and adopt water conservation traffic-free transportation. Consider the introduction of

Tax and administrative regimes worked out measures. urban areas. in co-operation with other relevant authorities should

for all Ensure the right of urban citizens to live in safe ensure the provision of clean drinking water

environments. Support the renewal of old urban citizens.

environments in such way that both physical solutions, a Reduce garbage production and create awareness of sufficiently taken social relations and health aspects are . garbage Minimise the disposal of such characteristics be as a resource. care of. Traditional architectural must

through the establishment of pre—sorting, possible. Tenants have resources presented to the greatest extent a

recycling and composting programmes. Assist decision—making affecting right to participate in important

households and business in reducing their use and in aesthetic cultural the standard of housing, concerns,

preventing the unsafe disposal of hazardous materials social and human values. identity, established structures

and compounds. Provide sufficient collection sites for

policies Adopt tree—planting and reforestation programmes and reusable materials. Adopt waste management

agricultural practices to arrest the increase in that maximise human health and minimise adverse promote

adequate control atmospheric carbon dioxide. environmental effects, and ensure

the reduced transboundary movement of waste. over

i

EDITORS

AFTERWORD

and municipalities will be decisive in the breakthrough of an

Cities

ecocycle orientation think globally and act locally For this —

iä pg reason, the Environmental Advisory Council, the body serving the

och 1 fysisk Swedish government in terms of long—term strategic environmental issues, FRAMTIDENS STAD has initiated a project focused doing what be done achieve Ã-.Ilüfl on can to ua- u x.-.-.-5--~ una-h in-u—¢qu—u-u sustainable development at the local level. As first step, have chosen ---an a we to describe a number of examples of creative work, and them in the present present volume. our intention to continue this work, adding in-depth

analyses to examine what changes will be needed to dismantle the various

barriers to positive development.

This book has been prepared in collaboration betweeen the Environmental

Advisory Council and the Swedish Association of Local Authorities.

From the association participated Rolf A. Karlsson, Lars Fladvad and Eva

Grundelius. The Associations series of mini—reports the environment on and natural resources in physical planning have been important of sources information a--lsmanxllinlipnmannpzfiass to us. The basis of the material for this book various by Eva The future city reports — one of the mini Grundelius, Ros—Mari Edström, Jan Lothigius and Bengt Persson, which reports from the Swedish Association of Local Authorities. we have revised and edited. Documents and the projects reports on described here and interviews with the people from the municipalities we have chosen as examples have also served A degree ll.-£l.‘l.—‘tf%E§l{f‘E% as sources to us. project from Chalmers University of Technology called The dilemma of lil.E.l.l.\

the earthworm -ideas for ecological cities available in Swedish

ili hu rn nur cluuh more only, ISBN number 91-7032-612-6 has also provided with inspiration. us The cover illustration and chapter opening illustrations have been made

by Maria Udriot. The figures drawn by Birgit Eliasson. The main were

photographer was Bosse Johansson, the technical editor Ingvar Nilsson,

and the English translator Linda Schenck.

The desktop work was done by Dan Palmbrink at Norstedts Tryckeri

AB, where this book printed. was

Our thanks to all those who made possible to produce this book so very quickly.

Stockholm, May 1992

The dilemma of the earthworm Tommy Månsson sourcebook for ideas. Expert the Environmental Advisory Council on

ECOCYCLES sou 199243

The Editor Tommy Månsson in Photo BOSSE JOHANSSON front of u model of Ladugårdsöngenu- the new housing area in Orebro constructed with vision of a bringing the ecocycles full course.

Statens

offentliga utredningar

1992 Systematisk förteckning

Justitiedepartementet Utbildningsdepartementet

Bundna aktier. [13] Frihet- kompetens. Grundutbildningens villkor ansvar - EES-anpassning av kreditupplysningslagen. [22] i högskolan. [1]

Konstnärlig högskoleutbildning. [12]

Socialdepartementet Ledning och ledarskap i högskolan några perspektiv

- Psykiskt stördas situation i kommunerna och möjligheter. [15]

-en probleminventering socialtjänstens perspektiv. [3] Uwärdeñng 3V f5TS5kSV¢TkS3mh°le med 351’i8 ur Psykiatrin i Norden ett jämförande perspektiv. [4] yrkesinriktad utbildning i gymnasieskolan. [25] - Kroppen efter döden. [16] Fristående skolor. Bidrag och elevavgifter. [38]

Den sista undersökningen obduktionen i ett -

psykologiskt perspektiv. [17] Jordbruksdepartementet

Tvångsvård i socialtjänsten ansvar och innehåll. [18] - Mindre kadmium i handelsgödsel. [14] Statens hundskola. Ombildning från myndighet till

aktiebolag. [20] Kulturdepartementet

Bostadsstöd till pensionärer. [21] Ett nytt bolag för rundradiosändningar. [10] Rätten till folkpension kvaliñkationsregler i - Lagstiftning om satellitsändningar av TV-program. [31] internationella förhållanden. [26] Radio och TV i ett. [36] Smittskyddsinstitutet- ny organisation för Sveriges

nationella smittskyddsfunktioner. [29]

Arbetsmarknadsdepartementet

Psykiatrin och dess patienter -levnadsförhållanden, Kompetensutveckling en nationell strategi. [7] vårdens innehåll och utveckling. [37] - Årsarbetstid. [27] Begreppet arbetsskada. [39]

Civildepartementet Kommunikationsdepartementet

Ekonomi och rätt i kyrkan. [9] Nya Inlandsbanan. [32] Kasinospelsverksamhet i folkrörelsemas tjänst [33]

Finansdepartementet

Miljö- och naturresursdepartementet

Koncession för försäkringssammanslutningar. [5] Regler för risker. Ett seminarium om varför tillåter Ny mervärdesskattelag. mer föroreningar inne än ute. [2] Motiv. Del - Fastighetsdatasystemets datorstruktur. [34] Författningstext och bilagor. Del [6] — Kart- och mätningsutbildningar i skolforrner. nya [35] Fastighetstaxering Bostadsrätter. [8] m.m. - Angående vattenskotrar. Fastighetsskatt. Kretslopp Basen för hållbar Stadsutveckling. [42] Långtidsutredningen 1992. [19] —- Ecocycles The Basis of Sustainable Urban Develop- Kontrollfrågor i tulldatoriseringen [23] m.m. ment. [43] Avreglerad bostadsmarknad. [24]

Kartläggning av kasinospel enligt internationella i - KUNGL. BIBL. regler. [28]

1992-06-1 8

Kreditförsäkring Några aktuella problem. [30] - STOCKHOLM Risk- och skadehantering i statlig verksamhet. [40]

Statens 1992

offentliga utredningar

Kronologisk förteckning

1.Frihet kompetens. Grundutbildningens 29. Smittskyddsinstitutet ny organisation för Sveriges - ansvar - villkor i högskolan. U. nationella smittskyddsfunktioner. Regler för risker. Ett seminarium varför vi 30. Kreditförsäkring Några aktuella problem. Fi. om tillåter föroreningar inne än ute. M. 31.Lagstiftning om satellitsändningar av mer Psykiskt stördas situation i kommunerna TV-program.Ku. probleminventering ur socialtjänstens 32. Nya Inlandsbanan. K. -en perspektiv. S. 33. Kasinospelsverksamhet i folkrörelsemas tjänst C. Psykiatrin i Norden -ett jämförande perspektiv. 34.Fastighetsdatasystemets datorstruktur. M. Koncession för försäkringssammanslutningar. Fi. 35. Kart- och mätningsutbildningar i nya skolformer. M.

Ny mervärdesskattelag. 36.Radio och TV i ett. Ku. Motiv. Del 37. Psykiatrin och dess patienter levnadsförhållanden, - - Författningstext och bilagor. Del Fi. vårdens innehåll och utveckling. - Kompetensutveckling en nationell strategi. A. 38. Fristående skolor. Bidrag och elevavgifter. U. - Fastighetstaxering Bostadsrätter. Fi. 39. Begreppet arbetsskada. m.m. - Ekonomi och rätt i kyrkan. C. 40. Risk- och skadehantering i statlig verksamhet. Fi. 10.Ett nytt bolag för rundradiosändningar. Ku. 41. Angående vattenskotrar. M. l Fastighetsskatt. Fi. 42. Kretslopp Basen för hållbar Stadsutveckling. M. - 12. Konstnärlig högskoleutbildning. U. 43. Ecocycles The Basis of Sustainable Urban -— 13. Bundna aktier. Ju. Development. M. 14. Mindre kadmium i handelsgödsel. Jo. 15.Ledning och ledarskap i högskolan några perspektiv och möjligheter. U. 16. Kroppen efter döden. 17. Den sista undersökningen obduktionen i ett psykologiskt perspektiv. 18.Tvångsvård i socialtjänsten ansvar och innehåll. - 19.Långtidsutredningen 1992. Fi. 20. Statens hundskola. Ombildning från myndighet till aktiebolag. S. 21.Bostadsstöd till pensionärer. 22.EES-anpassning av kreditupplysningslagen. Ju. 23. Kontrollfrågor i tulldatoriseringen m.m. Fi. 24. Avreglerad bostadsmarknad. Fi. 25.Utvärdering av försöksverksamheten med 3-årig yrkesinriktad utbildning i gymnasieskolan. U. 26.Rätten till folkpension kvaliñkationsregler i internationella förhållanden. j . . 27.Årsarbetstid. A. i

28. Kartläggning av kasinospel enligt internationella

— regler. Fi. - ~

K¢v,;.K;,1.. v; .s x . f . v

ORDERS ALLMÄNNA FÖRLAGET, CUSTOMER SERVICES, S-10647 STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, PHONE+46-8-73996 30, FAX +46-8-73995 48. ISBN 91-38-13048-3 ISSN0375-250x ‘